Science of educational psychology

SCIENCE OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY
What Is Educational Psychology?
Educational psychology involves the study of how
people learn, including topics such as student
outcomes, the instructional process, individual
differences in learning, gifted learners and learning
disabilities.
This branch of psychology involves not just the
learning process of early childhood and
adolescence, but includes the social, emotional and
cognitive processes that are involved in learning
throughout the entire lifespan. The field of
educational psychology incorporates a number of
other disciplines, including developmental

• GOALS OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY
 Exploring the Field of Educational Psychology
William James (1842–1910) - argued that laboratory
psychology experiments often can’t tell us how to
effectively teach children and emphasized the
importance of observing teaching and learning in
classrooms for improving education
- recommended was to start lessons at
a point just beyond the child’s level of knowledge and
understanding, in order to stretch the child’s mind.

John Dewey (1859–1952) - presented the idea that
education should focus on the whole child and
emphasize the child’s adaptation to the environment
- believed that children should
not be narrowly educated in academic topics but should
learn how to think and adapt to a world outside school.
- thought that children
should learn how to be reflective problem solvers that all
children deserve to have a competent education

E. L. Thorndike (1874–1949) - argued that one of
schooling’s most important tasks is to hone
children’s reasoning skills, and he excelled at
doing challenging scientific studies of teaching
and learning
- promoted the idea that
educational psychology must have a scientific
base and that it should focus strongly on
measurement.

 Effective Teaching
Teaching Involves Social and Ethical Matters -
schools are settings in which considerable
socialization takes place. The social and ethical
dimensions of teaching include the question of
educational equity
Teaching Involves a Diverse Mosaic of Students-
students differ in many ways. They will have
different levels of intellectual ability, different
personality profiles, different interests, varying
motivations to learn, and different family,
economic, religious, and cultural backgrounds

 Effective Teaching
Effective Teachers
- Professional Knowledge and Skills
- Subject-Matter Competence
- Commitment
- Professional Growth

• RESEARCH IN EDUCATIONAL
PSYCHOLOGY
Interviews and Questionnaires
(Descriptive)
Correlational Research
Experimental Research

• ATTAINING DESIRED OUTCOMES OF
ADULT LEARNING
 Phase 1: Informing the Student
Most students want to do well and achieve the
goals set for them. - Well-chosen learning
objectives will assure the student acquires all of
the knowledge and skills to achieve the desired
outcomes. They provide a road map for students
and foster confidence that the teacher is there to
assist them in achieving success. All course
materials and activities should relate directly to the
goals and learning objectives.

ADULT LEARNING
 Phase 1: Informing the Student
Students should be informed about the learning
experience in order to understand the desired
outcomes.
- The concrete learning objectives for each
section should be clearly defined, even read and
reviewed aloud one at a time. After each
learning objective is read, the students should
be queried to assure they understand the
objective and what will be expected of them.

ADULT LEARNING
 Phase 2: Preparing the Student
Assessment of Student Background Knowledge
— An assessment of background knowledge
provides important information. It allows the
Preceptor to fill in any gaps in the student's
assumed foundation knowledge, correct
misinformation, and reinforce concepts that will
underpin new materials to be presented. Care
should be taken during this portion of the
learning experience to correct any wrong
information possessed by the students.

ADULT LEARNING
 Phase 2: Preparing the Student
Building Bridges — Information collected during
pre-program assessments should be organized and
formalized in a way that will support the transition to
each new concept to be presented. Providing the
students with logical bridges from their existing
knowledge base to the new concepts will greatly
increase their interest and ability to organize and retain
new information they encounter. A brief preview
discussion of the film is recommended to increase
anticipation and expectations of the viewer.

ADULT LEARNING
 Phase 3: Presenting Information
Primacy— The educational principle of
primacy is based upon the fact that what is learned
the first time is usually what is retained. This has
several consequences that must be taken into
account when educating adult learners.
Participants may have to unlearn incorrect
information or techniques acquired during previous
experiences that they regard as accurate. This is
usually more difficult than learning new information
and requires thoughtful, planned teaching
techniques. Extreme care must be taken to avoid
imparting incorrect information.

ADULT LEARNING
Intensity— learned must be intense enough to be retained.
This may be accomplished in a number of ways:
 learning supports must be established and reinforced consistently.
 concepts or ideas contained in written material
should be emphasized by use of color, highlighting, underlining, or
italicizing.
 use of humor, irony, or incongruity is beneficial in creating dynamic and
memorable concepts which may easily be inserted into the adult’s long-
term memory.
 use of illustrations, brief stories, and most especially artifacts (i.e. tools-
of-the-trade) is especially valuable in enhancing the intensity of most
subject matter.
• Written materials, films, and all other instructional aides used by the
preceptor should be evaluated for their ability to add intensity to the
subject matter.
 develop reasonable styles of conversation and analysis, which maximize
intensity in the presentation of otherwise dull materials and concepts.

ADULT LEARNING
Repetition— Knowledge is transferred from short-
to long-term memory when it is repeated. This signals
the brain that the information is important and should be
retained. However, care must be taken to make these
repetitions informational and prevent boredom. The key
concepts are presented at least twice in the course
materials; once audio-visually and once in the written
form. The instructor should then incorporate a method of
presenting each concept in a hands-on way, such as
through group discussion of practical application or
guided practice of skills. In developing course materials,
key concepts can also be repeated by mentioning their
application in various settings as frequently as is
appropriate.

ADULT LEARNING
 Phase 4: Implanting the Knowledge and Transfer of
Learning
Transfer from Short-Term to Long-Term
Memory— Most information resides in the short-term
memory for a few minutes and then vanishes unless
strategies are employed to transfer it to the long-term
memory. Repetition is one way to accomplish this as is
presenting information in several, overlapping, and
different ways (visually, verbally, written). Another
excellent way to implant new information in the long-
term memory is to immediately apply it to problem
solving through play acting.

ADULT LEARNING
 Phase 4: Implanting the Knowledge and Transfer of
Learning Transfer of Learning to Daily
Practice— Even when information is retained in the
long-term memory, it will not necessarily be
incorporated into actual practice without a
transformation strategy. The process of transforming
knowledge to actions is called transfer of learning. In
most cases, this does not happen all by itself, and
the job of the preceptor does not end until this
concrete outcome has occurred. It is important to
prepare for the transfer of learning while information
is fresh and the student’s interest is high.

ADULT LEARNING
 Phase 5: Closing the Loop; Assessment and
Correction of Deficiencies
Formal Assessments— A written test of
factual knowledge helps the preceptor and
student identify concepts that were poorly
understood or ineffectively transferred to the
long-term memory. An observed practical skills
test measures the transfer of knowledge to
practical applications. The students should be
skilled and practiced in the process that will be
observed and the criteria by which their
performance will be assessed.

ADULT LEARNING
 Phase 5: Closing the Loop; Assessment and Correction
of Deficiencies
Retraining— Retraining should be based upon
an assessment of the written and practical skills test.
The instructor must first identify the key concepts
that relate to the missed questions or inadequate
skills. Elicit the student’s engagement in this process
and ask the student what aides, practice, or other
information he or she feels would be beneficial.
Sometimes, it is useful to have the student try to
teach the information. (The process of teaching is
often the best way to learn a subject.)

ADULT LEARNING
Assessment of Retraining— The written
test following the retraining process should
emphasize the subject area of difficulty. If the
problems were skills-based, several repetitions
of the problematic processes should be
performed to assure consistency.

ADULT LEARNING
Ongoing Assessment and
Reinforcement— The ongoing assessment and
reinforcement of learned skills is the most
important component in achieving desired
concrete outcomes. The ongoing assessment
should use the same criteria as the formal post-
test of practical skills. Corrective observations
should be presented in a supportive, rather than
a critical, format. Personnel working together
within the group should be encouraged to
provide each other with positive reinforcement.

• HOW DO PROFESSIONALS LEARN?
 Work with learning as a by-product
Participation in group processes - covers both team-
working towards a common outcome, and groups set up
for a special purpose such as discussing a client,
problem solving, reviewing some practices, planning
ahead, or responding to external changes.

Working alongside others - others allows people to observe
and listen to others at work and to participate in activities; and
hence to learn some new practices and new perspectives, to
become aware of different kinds of knowledge and expertise,
and to gain some sense of other people’s tacit knowledge.
This mode of learning, which includes a lot of observation as
well as discussion, is extremely important for learning the tacit
knowledge that underpins routines and intuitive decisions and
is difficult to explain. When people see what is being said and
done, explanations can be much shorter and the fine detail of
incidents is still in people’s minds. Clues to situational
recognition may not be remembered, unless they are picked
up on-the-spot by questions or comments. Moreover, multi-
sensory engagement over some time enables the gradual
development of tacit as well as explicit situational
understanding.

Consultations within or outside the working group or even outside
the organisation, are used to co-ordinate activities or to get advice.
The act of initiating a consultation, however, depends on the
relationships between the parties, the extent of a worker’s network
and the culture of the workplace. For newcomers the distinction
between a consultation and being mentored or supervised is not
always clear, as part of a mentor’s or supervisor’s role is making
oneself available for consultation.

Tackling challenging tasks and roles - requires on-the job
learning and, if successful, leads to increased motivation and
confidence. However, people are less inclined to take on challenges
unless they feel confident both in their ability to succeed as a result
of previous experience and in the support of their manager and/or
colleagues. Without such previous experience and support,
challenges pose too high a risk.

Problem solving, individually or in groups,
necessarily entails learning; otherwise there would be no
problem. Such problems are not just technical, they may
involve acquiring new knowledge before one can start,
searching for relevant information and informants,
imagination, persistence and interpersonal negotiation.
Trying things out is distinguished from less purposeful
behaviour by the intention to learn from the experience.
It requires some prior assessment of risk, especially
where other people might be affected, and may require
special arrangements for getting feedback, as well as
time for subsequent reflection and evaluation.

Consolidating, extending and refining skills are particularly
important when entering new jobs or taking on new roles, when it is
sometimes supported by episodes of supervision, coaching or
feedback. It is greatly helped by informal personal support and some
sense of an onward learning trajectory.
Working with clients also entails learning (1) about the client, (2)
from any novel aspects of each client’s problem or request and (3)
from any new ideas that arise from the encounter. Some workers
have daily experiences of working with clients, which may or may
not be recognized as learning opportunities. Some progress from
less to 14 more important clients, or from those with simple needs to
those with more complex needs. There can also be a strong
emotional dimension, when a client arrives in a distressed state or is
about to receive bad news. This is a context where sharing
experiences can be helpful. Another factor is the extent to which
client contact gives the work meaning and value, and thus enhances
workers’ sense of collective purpose.

 Learning Activities located within work or learning
processes
Asking questions and getting information are
important, proactive activities; and good questions and
knowledge searches are appreciated in positive learning
contexts. However, many novices feel diffident about
asking 15 questions of senior colleagues unless they are
working together and the question is spontaneous. They
feel that asking a “silly” question would reflect badly on
their reputation and are afraid of being prematurely labelled
as a “weak” practitioner. This constraint, however, does not
apply to talking to peers or novices a year or less ahead of
them who still remember what it was like at their stage; and
this should be considered when allocating and supporting
newcomers.

processes
Locating resource people is also a proactive
activity that requires confidence and social understanding.
Some early career professionals were very proactive in
seeking out and developing relationships with a wider
network of knowledge resource people, while others gave it
little attention, often because they did not appreciate its
potential value. Resource people may be gatekeepers
and/or guides to who knows what and who is prepared to
support newcomers. Progression routes to more ambitious
tasks may depend on whom you get to know; and
willingness to engage in routine work may earn you the
right to get access to more challenging work.

processes
Listening and observing activities are very
dependent on what the observer/listener is able to grasp
and
comprehend; and comprehension depends on
awareness of the significance of what has been said
and/or done.
Such awareness and understanding is developed
through discussion and reflection. Much is learned
through watching other people communicating with
colleagues, clients or subordinates. However, it
should be noted that our research encountered as
much learning from bad examples as from good examples!
Sometimes the best role models are among the
support staff.

 Learning Activities located within work or learning processes
Learning from mistakes is possible in most working contexts,
both from one’s own mistakes and those of others;
but opportunities for this activity are frequently missed. Another
important issue concerns when it is better to be
taught the right way and when it is better to allow people to
learn from their mistakes.
Reflection is included here, because it occurs both on and off
the job and often plays an important role in
recognizing and learning from mistakes. Authors such as
Schon (1983, 1987) have argued that reflection lies at the centre of
nearly all significant learning, but have not fully explored the
range of reflective learning agents (individual or group), foci (current,
past or future), contexts (busy or relaxed) and purposes
(monitoring, decision making or learning) and their influence on
the reflective process.

 Learning Activities located within work or learning processes
Giving and receiving feedback are both important, often vital, for
most learning processes. We found four main settings for feedback:
Immediate comment on aspects of a task or role given on-the-spot or soon
after the event by a co-participant or witness.
Informal conversations away from the job often convey indirect and/or
unintended messages as well as
intended advice; but don’t pay attention to second hand feedback out of
context, because these second hand messages often misinterpret what was
said.
Formal roles such as mentor or supervisor involve some responsibility for a l
earner’s short to medium term progress and an obligation to provide
formative feedback on a regular basis; but this may not happen in
practice.
Appraisal is a process where designated appraisers are expected, but rarely
succeed in, giving normative feedback on personal strengths and
weaknesses and ascertaining views on learning opportunities and
meeting expectations
.

processes
Mediating artefacts need more explanation in spite
of their considerable value, so we provide some examples
from our recent research into the learning of early career,
accountants, engineers and nurses. They play a very
important role in structuring work and sharing information
by mediating group learning about clients or projects in
progress. Some artefacts in daily use carry information in a
standard way that novices soon learn to understand.

 Learning processes at or near the workplace
Coaching and mentoring are provided mainly for newcomers, and
occasionally for newly appointed managers and training in new
technology. Coaching is often limited by managers not being
prepared to release potential coaches from their normal work, and
mentoring by lack of informal opportunities to develop an
appropriate relationship. In many situations mentoring is provided by
helpful others, who are not designated mentors, and this is usually
best for mutual on-the-spot support and feedback.
Shadowing and visits to other sites are used for inducting some
newcomers, for workers taking on new responsibilities and for
improving cooperation between different sites. They could be very
helpful for developing a wider understanding of projects, other work
groups, suppliers and customers; but this need is often
underestimated.

 Learning processes at or near the workplace
Conferences are probably more important for updating and
networking then for direct learning, and short courses were the main
kind of formal Continuing Professional Development. Attending short
training courses was important for some people at particular stages
in their career. But even then, work-based learning was important in
developing the ability to use what has been learned off-the-job. This
was especially true for short courses, which have very little impact
unless they are appropriately timed and properly followed up at
work.
Independent study may be supported by the provision of
knowledge resources and/or agreed plans, such as lists of
competences, learning projects or personal development plans.
Formal training and knowledge resources such as manuals,
reference books, documentation, protocols and an intranet were
generally available to all workers, the engineers in particular using
the intranet as their prime source of current information. Apart from
essential textbooks, manuals and guides received limited use.
Learners generally found it quicker and more effective to get
information directly from more knowledgeable colleagues or the
minority that did conquer the manuals.

Science of educational psychology

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