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INTRODUCTION
Aluminum phosphide (AlP) is a
cheap, effective and commonly used
pesticide. Since the first available report of
AlP poisoning in the early 1980s from India, it
is now one of the most common causes of
poisoning among agricultural pesticides.
• The demographic profile of most of the case
series of AlP poisoning were of the young adult
population from rural areas.
• Since 1992, when aluminium phosphide became
freely available in the market, it has
reportedly, overtaken all other forms of
deliberate poisoning like organophosphorus and
barbiturate poisoning in northern India.
• In their 25 year study on 5,933 unnatural case
fatalities in north-west India by Singh D et
al., AAlPP was the major cause of death among
all poisonings. (J Assoc Physicians India 1997;45(3):194-7)
MECHANISM OF TOXICITY
• Human toxicity occurs either due to the
ingestion of AlP (commonest mode) after
exposure and injury from phosphine
inhalation (uncommon) or even after
absorption through the skin (rare). After
ingestion, AlP releases phosphine gas in the
presence of HCl in the stomach
AlP + 3H2O → Al (OH)3 + PH3
AlP + 3HCl → AlCl3 + PH3
• The mechanism of toxicity includes failure of
cellular respiration due to the effect on
mitochondria, inhibition of cytochrome C
oxidase and formation of highly reactive
hydroxyl radicals.
• There is a decrease in the level of catalase and
increase in the activity of superoxide
dismutase in patients of AlP poisoning.
• The reduction of glutathione concentration in
different tissues in AlP poisoning also explains
the cellular injury as glutathione is a
protecting factor against oxidation by
catalysing the reduction of the oxygen
peroxide in O2 and H2O.
• Indicators of oxidative stress (reduced
glutathione, malonyldialdehyed) reach peak
levels within 48 h of exposure of
poison, approaching normalisation by day 5.
CLINICAL FEATURES
• The signs and symptoms are
nonspecific, instantaneous and depend on the
dose, route of entry and time lapse since
exposure to poison. After inhalation
exposure, patients commonly have airway
irritation and breathlessness.
• In mild poisoning nausea, repeated
vomiting, diarrhea, headache, abdominal
discomfort or pain.
• In moderate to severe ingestional
poisoning, the signs and symptoms of the
gastrointestinal, cardiovascular, respiratory
and nervous systems appear initially and, later
on, features of hepatic and renal failure and
disseminated intravascular coagulation may
also occur.
• The toxicity of AlP particularly affects the
cardiac and vascular tissues, which manifests
as
Profound and refractory hypotension,
congestive heart failure,
electrocardiographic (ECG) abnormalities,
myocarditis,
subendocardial infarction or pericarditis.
• Temporal correlation in ECG changes showed
that during the initial 3–6 h, sinus tachycardia
is predominant, in the 6–12 h period ST-T
changes and conduction disturbances
appear, while in the later period, arrhythmias
occurred. (J Assoc Physicians India
1998;46(7):598-601)
Electrocardiographic
changes following
aluminium phosphide
poisoning. (A) 12‐lead
surface ECG recorded on
admission showing sinus
tachycardia. (B) ECG
recorded 12 hours later
showing extreme widening
of the QRS complex
• In a study by Siwach et al., the incidence of
various arrhythmias on holter monitoring in
patients of AlP poisoning showed ventricular
tachycardia in 40%, ventricular fibrillation in
23.3%, supraventricular tachycardia in 46.7%
and atrial flutter/fibrillation in 20% of the
cases. The frequency of hypotension varies
from 76% to 100%. (J Assoc Physicians India
1997;45:693-5)
• Respiratory features may include
cough, dyspnoea, cyanosis, pulmonary
edema, respiratory failure and ARDS.
• Metabolic acidosis may be present probably
due to the accumulation of lactic acid caused
by blockage of oxidative phosphorylation and
poor tissue perfusion.
• Both hypo- and hypermagnesemia following AlP
poisoning have been described in the
literature, although their pathogenesis is not
clear. (J Assoc Physicians India 1994;42(2):107-10)
Other uncommon findings in AlP poisoning are
 intravascular hemolysis,
 acute adrenocortical insufficiency,
 hepatitis,
 acute tubular necrosis,
 pancreatitis,
 hypo- or hyperglycemia,
 methhemoglobinemia,
 microangiopathic hemolytic anemia and disseminated
intravascular coagulation.
DIAGNOSIS
• The diagnosis of AlP usually depends on the
clinical suspicion or history (self-report or by
attendants).
• In case of doubt, diagnosis can be made easily by
simple silver nitrate-impregnated paper test on
gastric content or on breath.
• gas chromatography with a nitrogen–
phosphorous detector is the most specific and
sensitive test and it can be used for analysis of
airtight samples
• Laboratory evaluation is mainly done to assess the
prognosis. Leucopenia indicates severe toxicity.
• Increased SGOT or SGPT and metabolic acidosis
indicate moderate to severe ingestional poisoning.
• Electrolyte analysis shows
decreased magnesium
potassium may be increased or decreased.
• Measurement of plasma renin is significant as its level
in blood carries a direct relationship with mortality and
is raised in direct proportion to the dose of pesticide.
• The serum level of cortisol is usually found to be
decreased in severe poisoning.
MANAGEMENT
• Management should be started as soon as
history and clinical examination support AlP
poisoning, and should not be delayed for the
confirmatory diagnosis .
• Early arrival, resuscitation, diagnosis, intensive
monitoring and supportive therapy may result
in good outcome.
INITIAL EVALUATION AND RESUSCITATION
• Immediate primary survey should be
performed to support or to restore effective
oxygenation, ventilation and circulation. The
health care provider must take personal
protection measures, including full face mask
and rubber gloves during decontamination.
• Confirm airway patency and, if
required, protect the airways with
endotracheal tube to prevent aspiration
pneumonitis, start supplementary oxygen.
• Check for pulse and establish intravenous
access, preferably central venous, to start normal
saline and vasopressor therapy as appropriate.
• Monitoring of vitals should be performed very closely.
Initial investigation should include
 ECG,
 chest X-ray,
 blood glucose,
 arterial blood gas,
 electrolytes including magnesium,
 routine hemogram,
 liver function test
 renal function test.
• Repeated or continuous ECG and echocardiography
can reveal cardiac dysfunction early.
DECREASE THE EXPOSURE OF POISON
• The victim, after occupational or accidental
exposure to phosphine gas, should immediately
be removed to fresh air.
• As phosphine is absorbed through the cutaneous
route, decontamination of skin and eyes must be
carried out thoroughly with plain water as early
as possible
• After ingestion, effectiveness of gut
decontamination to reduce the absorption of
unabsorbed poison is primarily dependent on the
duration of exposure of poison and is useful if it is
done within 1–2 h.
• Gut decontamination should not be performed if
the patient has an unprotected airway without
endotracheal intubation. Potassium
permanganate (1:10,000) is used for gastric
lavage through a nasogastric tube as it oxidises
phosphine to nontoxic phosphate.
• Sorbitol solution at a dose of 1–2 ml/kg may be
used as cathartic.
• In vitro experimental findings suggest that fat and
oil, mainly vegetable oils and liquid
paraffin, inhibit phosphine release from the
ingested AlP.
• The possible role of coconut oil in managing
acute AlP poisoning is concluded in a case report
even 6 h post ingestion.
HEMODYNAMIC SUPPORT
• All patients of severe AlP poisoning require
continuous invasive hemodynamic monitoring
and early resuscitation with fluid and vasoactive
agents.
• 2-3 litres of normal saline are administered
within the first 8-12 hr guided by central venous
pressure (CVP) and pulmonary capillary wedge
pressure(PCWP).
• The aim is to keep the CVP at around 12-14
cm of water. Some workers have
recommended rapid infusion of saline (3-6
litres) in the initial 3 hr.
• For refractory hypotension, norepinephrine or
phenylephrine could be used.
• Low dose dopamine (4-6 μg/kg/min) is given
to keep systolic blood pressure >90 mm Hg.
(Indian Heart J 1991;43(3):175-8.)
• The role of advanced measures like use of intra-
aortic balloon pump (IABP) to mechanically
support the heart has been demonstrated in toxic
myocarditis with refractory shock due to AlP
poisoning.
EARLY IDENTIFICATION AND MANAGING OTHER
ORGAN FAILURES
• Patients who develop cyanosis and are not
responding to oxygen therapy, then
methemoglobinemia should be ruled out by
multiple wave length cooximetry or plasma level
of methemoglobin.
• Hydrocortisone 200-400 mg every 4-6 hr is
given intravenously to combat shock, reduce
the dose of dopamine, check capillary leakage
in lungs (ARDS) and to potentiate the
responsiveness of the body to endogenous
and exogenous catecholamines. (J Med Assoc
Clin Med 1995:1:20-2)
• Oxygen is given for hypoxia. ARDS requires
intensive care monitoring and mechanical
ventilation.
• Antacids and proton pump blockers are added
for symptomatic relief
• Phosphine excretion can be increased by
maintaining adequate hydration and renal
perfusion with intravenous fluids and low
dose (4-6 μg/kg/min) dopamine.
• Diuretics like frusemide can be given if systolic
blood pressure is >90 mm Hg to enhance
excretion as the main route of elimination of
phosphine is renal.
• All types of ventricular arrhythmias are seen in
these patients and the management is the
same as for arrhythmias in other situations.
• Bicarbonate level less than 15 mEq/L requires
sodabicarb in a dose of 50-100 mEq
intravenously every 8 hour till the bicarbonate
level rises to 18-20 mEq/L. Patients may
require up to 300-500 ml of sodium
bicarbonate.
• Dialysis may be required for severe acidosis
and acute renal failure.(International
Programme on Chemical Safety Environmental
health criteria 73: phosphine and selected metal
phosphides. Geneva: World Health Organization;
1998. [cited 2007 Sep 14].
Availablefrom:http://www.who.int/ipcs/publicatio
ns.
• Symptomatic methemoglobinemia requires
antidote therapy with intravenous methylene
blue (1% solution) 2 mg/kg of body weight over 5
mins, which and can be repeated if the cyanosis is
not resolved.
• Intravenous sodium bicarbonate could be
considered for mild to moderate metabolic
acidosis or as a rescue therapy in severe acidosis
before dialysis could be commenced. In a recent
study, using intravenous sodium bicarbonate for
the “aggressive correction of acidosis” protocol
resulted in significant improvement in patient
outcome (30% vs. 55%).
OTHER SUPPORTIVE THERAPY
• The role of magnesium sulfate as a potential
therapy in AlP poisoning to decrease the
likelihood of a fatal outcome has been
described in many studies
• The dosages for magnesium sulfate were
different in different studies: (a) 3 g as
infusion over 3 h, followed by 6 g per 24 h for
3–5 days,
(b) 1g stat, then 1 g every hour for the next 2
h and then 1–1.5 g every 6 h for 5–7 days,
(c) 4 g stat, 2 g after one hour and then 1 g
every three-hourly and
(d) 3 g bolus followed by 6 g infusion over the
next 12 h for 5–7 days.
• Hyperglycemia at admission has been found
to be a significant poor prognostic factor.
Therefore, there is a possible role of
treatment of hyperglycemia throughout
management of the poisoning, which may
improve the outcome.
• Many therapeutic agents with antioxidant
properties have been tried in experimental
animal studies with phosphine toxicity, like n-
acetylcysteine, glutathione, melatonin, vitamin C
and beta carotene, but there is a need for human
trials before their routine use in AlP poisoning.
• The possible role of trimetazidine as the
treatment of cardiovascular manifestation has
been demonstrated, which is an anti-ischemic
drug that acts by reducing oxygen consumption
Celphos poisoning
Celphos poisoning
PROGNOSTIC INDICES
• This poisoning has a high mortality (30–100%)
and survival is unlikely if more than 1.5 g is
ingested.
• The serum phosphine level of more than 1.6
mg/dl correlates with mortality. Most of the
patients died within the first 24 h after ingestion
mainly due to arrhythmia and after 24 h due to
refractory shock, acidosis and ARDS. (Singh S, Singh
D, Wig N, Jit I, Sharma BK. Aluminum phosphide ingestion - a
clinico-pathologic study. J Toxicol Clin Toxicol 1996;34(6):703-
6)
• In a retrospective analysis of one of the largest
series (471 patients) of AlP poisoning, arterial
pH, serum bicarbonate level and ECG
abnormalities were significantly poor prognostic
factors.
• Other poor prognostic factors are shock, altered
mental status, high APACHE II score, acute kidney
injury, low prothrombin
rate, hyperleucocytosis, requirement of
mechanical ventilation, lack of vomiting after
ingestion, hyperglycemia and time lapsed after
exposure.

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Celphos poisoning

  • 1. INTRODUCTION Aluminum phosphide (AlP) is a cheap, effective and commonly used pesticide. Since the first available report of AlP poisoning in the early 1980s from India, it is now one of the most common causes of poisoning among agricultural pesticides.
  • 2. • The demographic profile of most of the case series of AlP poisoning were of the young adult population from rural areas. • Since 1992, when aluminium phosphide became freely available in the market, it has reportedly, overtaken all other forms of deliberate poisoning like organophosphorus and barbiturate poisoning in northern India. • In their 25 year study on 5,933 unnatural case fatalities in north-west India by Singh D et al., AAlPP was the major cause of death among all poisonings. (J Assoc Physicians India 1997;45(3):194-7)
  • 3. MECHANISM OF TOXICITY • Human toxicity occurs either due to the ingestion of AlP (commonest mode) after exposure and injury from phosphine inhalation (uncommon) or even after absorption through the skin (rare). After ingestion, AlP releases phosphine gas in the presence of HCl in the stomach AlP + 3H2O → Al (OH)3 + PH3 AlP + 3HCl → AlCl3 + PH3
  • 4. • The mechanism of toxicity includes failure of cellular respiration due to the effect on mitochondria, inhibition of cytochrome C oxidase and formation of highly reactive hydroxyl radicals. • There is a decrease in the level of catalase and increase in the activity of superoxide dismutase in patients of AlP poisoning.
  • 5. • The reduction of glutathione concentration in different tissues in AlP poisoning also explains the cellular injury as glutathione is a protecting factor against oxidation by catalysing the reduction of the oxygen peroxide in O2 and H2O. • Indicators of oxidative stress (reduced glutathione, malonyldialdehyed) reach peak levels within 48 h of exposure of poison, approaching normalisation by day 5.
  • 6. CLINICAL FEATURES • The signs and symptoms are nonspecific, instantaneous and depend on the dose, route of entry and time lapse since exposure to poison. After inhalation exposure, patients commonly have airway irritation and breathlessness.
  • 7. • In mild poisoning nausea, repeated vomiting, diarrhea, headache, abdominal discomfort or pain. • In moderate to severe ingestional poisoning, the signs and symptoms of the gastrointestinal, cardiovascular, respiratory and nervous systems appear initially and, later on, features of hepatic and renal failure and disseminated intravascular coagulation may also occur.
  • 8. • The toxicity of AlP particularly affects the cardiac and vascular tissues, which manifests as Profound and refractory hypotension, congestive heart failure, electrocardiographic (ECG) abnormalities, myocarditis, subendocardial infarction or pericarditis.
  • 9. • Temporal correlation in ECG changes showed that during the initial 3–6 h, sinus tachycardia is predominant, in the 6–12 h period ST-T changes and conduction disturbances appear, while in the later period, arrhythmias occurred. (J Assoc Physicians India 1998;46(7):598-601)
  • 10. Electrocardiographic changes following aluminium phosphide poisoning. (A) 12‐lead surface ECG recorded on admission showing sinus tachycardia. (B) ECG recorded 12 hours later showing extreme widening of the QRS complex
  • 11. • In a study by Siwach et al., the incidence of various arrhythmias on holter monitoring in patients of AlP poisoning showed ventricular tachycardia in 40%, ventricular fibrillation in 23.3%, supraventricular tachycardia in 46.7% and atrial flutter/fibrillation in 20% of the cases. The frequency of hypotension varies from 76% to 100%. (J Assoc Physicians India 1997;45:693-5)
  • 12. • Respiratory features may include cough, dyspnoea, cyanosis, pulmonary edema, respiratory failure and ARDS. • Metabolic acidosis may be present probably due to the accumulation of lactic acid caused by blockage of oxidative phosphorylation and poor tissue perfusion.
  • 13. • Both hypo- and hypermagnesemia following AlP poisoning have been described in the literature, although their pathogenesis is not clear. (J Assoc Physicians India 1994;42(2):107-10) Other uncommon findings in AlP poisoning are  intravascular hemolysis,  acute adrenocortical insufficiency,  hepatitis,  acute tubular necrosis,  pancreatitis,  hypo- or hyperglycemia,  methhemoglobinemia,  microangiopathic hemolytic anemia and disseminated intravascular coagulation.
  • 14. DIAGNOSIS • The diagnosis of AlP usually depends on the clinical suspicion or history (self-report or by attendants). • In case of doubt, diagnosis can be made easily by simple silver nitrate-impregnated paper test on gastric content or on breath. • gas chromatography with a nitrogen– phosphorous detector is the most specific and sensitive test and it can be used for analysis of airtight samples
  • 15. • Laboratory evaluation is mainly done to assess the prognosis. Leucopenia indicates severe toxicity. • Increased SGOT or SGPT and metabolic acidosis indicate moderate to severe ingestional poisoning. • Electrolyte analysis shows decreased magnesium potassium may be increased or decreased. • Measurement of plasma renin is significant as its level in blood carries a direct relationship with mortality and is raised in direct proportion to the dose of pesticide. • The serum level of cortisol is usually found to be decreased in severe poisoning.
  • 16. MANAGEMENT • Management should be started as soon as history and clinical examination support AlP poisoning, and should not be delayed for the confirmatory diagnosis . • Early arrival, resuscitation, diagnosis, intensive monitoring and supportive therapy may result in good outcome.
  • 17. INITIAL EVALUATION AND RESUSCITATION • Immediate primary survey should be performed to support or to restore effective oxygenation, ventilation and circulation. The health care provider must take personal protection measures, including full face mask and rubber gloves during decontamination. • Confirm airway patency and, if required, protect the airways with endotracheal tube to prevent aspiration pneumonitis, start supplementary oxygen.
  • 18. • Check for pulse and establish intravenous access, preferably central venous, to start normal saline and vasopressor therapy as appropriate. • Monitoring of vitals should be performed very closely. Initial investigation should include  ECG,  chest X-ray,  blood glucose,  arterial blood gas,  electrolytes including magnesium,  routine hemogram,  liver function test  renal function test. • Repeated or continuous ECG and echocardiography can reveal cardiac dysfunction early.
  • 19. DECREASE THE EXPOSURE OF POISON • The victim, after occupational or accidental exposure to phosphine gas, should immediately be removed to fresh air. • As phosphine is absorbed through the cutaneous route, decontamination of skin and eyes must be carried out thoroughly with plain water as early as possible • After ingestion, effectiveness of gut decontamination to reduce the absorption of unabsorbed poison is primarily dependent on the duration of exposure of poison and is useful if it is done within 1–2 h.
  • 20. • Gut decontamination should not be performed if the patient has an unprotected airway without endotracheal intubation. Potassium permanganate (1:10,000) is used for gastric lavage through a nasogastric tube as it oxidises phosphine to nontoxic phosphate. • Sorbitol solution at a dose of 1–2 ml/kg may be used as cathartic. • In vitro experimental findings suggest that fat and oil, mainly vegetable oils and liquid paraffin, inhibit phosphine release from the ingested AlP.
  • 21. • The possible role of coconut oil in managing acute AlP poisoning is concluded in a case report even 6 h post ingestion. HEMODYNAMIC SUPPORT • All patients of severe AlP poisoning require continuous invasive hemodynamic monitoring and early resuscitation with fluid and vasoactive agents. • 2-3 litres of normal saline are administered within the first 8-12 hr guided by central venous pressure (CVP) and pulmonary capillary wedge pressure(PCWP).
  • 22. • The aim is to keep the CVP at around 12-14 cm of water. Some workers have recommended rapid infusion of saline (3-6 litres) in the initial 3 hr. • For refractory hypotension, norepinephrine or phenylephrine could be used. • Low dose dopamine (4-6 μg/kg/min) is given to keep systolic blood pressure >90 mm Hg. (Indian Heart J 1991;43(3):175-8.)
  • 23. • The role of advanced measures like use of intra- aortic balloon pump (IABP) to mechanically support the heart has been demonstrated in toxic myocarditis with refractory shock due to AlP poisoning. EARLY IDENTIFICATION AND MANAGING OTHER ORGAN FAILURES • Patients who develop cyanosis and are not responding to oxygen therapy, then methemoglobinemia should be ruled out by multiple wave length cooximetry or plasma level of methemoglobin.
  • 24. • Hydrocortisone 200-400 mg every 4-6 hr is given intravenously to combat shock, reduce the dose of dopamine, check capillary leakage in lungs (ARDS) and to potentiate the responsiveness of the body to endogenous and exogenous catecholamines. (J Med Assoc Clin Med 1995:1:20-2) • Oxygen is given for hypoxia. ARDS requires intensive care monitoring and mechanical ventilation.
  • 25. • Antacids and proton pump blockers are added for symptomatic relief • Phosphine excretion can be increased by maintaining adequate hydration and renal perfusion with intravenous fluids and low dose (4-6 μg/kg/min) dopamine. • Diuretics like frusemide can be given if systolic blood pressure is >90 mm Hg to enhance excretion as the main route of elimination of phosphine is renal.
  • 26. • All types of ventricular arrhythmias are seen in these patients and the management is the same as for arrhythmias in other situations. • Bicarbonate level less than 15 mEq/L requires sodabicarb in a dose of 50-100 mEq intravenously every 8 hour till the bicarbonate level rises to 18-20 mEq/L. Patients may require up to 300-500 ml of sodium bicarbonate.
  • 27. • Dialysis may be required for severe acidosis and acute renal failure.(International Programme on Chemical Safety Environmental health criteria 73: phosphine and selected metal phosphides. Geneva: World Health Organization; 1998. [cited 2007 Sep 14]. Availablefrom:http://www.who.int/ipcs/publicatio ns.
  • 28. • Symptomatic methemoglobinemia requires antidote therapy with intravenous methylene blue (1% solution) 2 mg/kg of body weight over 5 mins, which and can be repeated if the cyanosis is not resolved. • Intravenous sodium bicarbonate could be considered for mild to moderate metabolic acidosis or as a rescue therapy in severe acidosis before dialysis could be commenced. In a recent study, using intravenous sodium bicarbonate for the “aggressive correction of acidosis” protocol resulted in significant improvement in patient outcome (30% vs. 55%).
  • 29. OTHER SUPPORTIVE THERAPY • The role of magnesium sulfate as a potential therapy in AlP poisoning to decrease the likelihood of a fatal outcome has been described in many studies • The dosages for magnesium sulfate were different in different studies: (a) 3 g as infusion over 3 h, followed by 6 g per 24 h for 3–5 days, (b) 1g stat, then 1 g every hour for the next 2 h and then 1–1.5 g every 6 h for 5–7 days,
  • 30. (c) 4 g stat, 2 g after one hour and then 1 g every three-hourly and (d) 3 g bolus followed by 6 g infusion over the next 12 h for 5–7 days. • Hyperglycemia at admission has been found to be a significant poor prognostic factor. Therefore, there is a possible role of treatment of hyperglycemia throughout management of the poisoning, which may improve the outcome.
  • 31. • Many therapeutic agents with antioxidant properties have been tried in experimental animal studies with phosphine toxicity, like n- acetylcysteine, glutathione, melatonin, vitamin C and beta carotene, but there is a need for human trials before their routine use in AlP poisoning. • The possible role of trimetazidine as the treatment of cardiovascular manifestation has been demonstrated, which is an anti-ischemic drug that acts by reducing oxygen consumption
  • 34. PROGNOSTIC INDICES • This poisoning has a high mortality (30–100%) and survival is unlikely if more than 1.5 g is ingested. • The serum phosphine level of more than 1.6 mg/dl correlates with mortality. Most of the patients died within the first 24 h after ingestion mainly due to arrhythmia and after 24 h due to refractory shock, acidosis and ARDS. (Singh S, Singh D, Wig N, Jit I, Sharma BK. Aluminum phosphide ingestion - a clinico-pathologic study. J Toxicol Clin Toxicol 1996;34(6):703- 6)
  • 35. • In a retrospective analysis of one of the largest series (471 patients) of AlP poisoning, arterial pH, serum bicarbonate level and ECG abnormalities were significantly poor prognostic factors. • Other poor prognostic factors are shock, altered mental status, high APACHE II score, acute kidney injury, low prothrombin rate, hyperleucocytosis, requirement of mechanical ventilation, lack of vomiting after ingestion, hyperglycemia and time lapsed after exposure.