1. Dang Van Hung, Ph.D.
SEAMEO RETRAC

2.  An overview
 Language learning principles
 Common Language Teaching
Approaches/Methods
 Other Teaching Methods

3.  Methodology
 Approach
 Method
 Curriculum/Syllabus
 Technique

4.  Methodology
 The study of pedagogical practices in general (including
theoretical underpinnings and related research). Whatever
considerations are involved in "how to teach" are
methodological.
 Approach
 Theoretical positions and beliefs about the nature of
language, the nature of language learning, and the
applicability of both to pedagogical settings

5.  Method
 A generalized set of classroom specifications for
accomplishing linguistic objectives. Methods tend to be
primarily concerned with teacher and student roles and
behaviors and secondarily with such features as linguistic and
subject-matter objectives, sequencing, and materials. They
are almost always thought of as being broadly applicable to a
variety of audiences in a variety of contexts.

6.  Curriculum/Syllabus
 Designs for carrying out a particular language
program. Features include a primary concern with the
specification of linguistic and subject-matter
objectives, sequencing, and materials to meet the needs of a
designated group of learners in a defined context.
 Technique
 Any of a wide variety of exercises, activities, or devices used
in the language classroom for realizing lesson objectives.

7.  Cognitive Principles
 Affective Principles
 Linguistic Principles

8.  Cognitive Principles
 Automaticity
 Meaningful Learning
 Anticipation of Rewards
 Intrinsic Motivation
 Strategic Investment

9.  Cognitive Principles
 Automaticity
 Sub-conscious processing of language with peripheral attention to
language forms
 Meaningful Learning
 This can be contrasted to Rote Learning, and is thought to lead to better
long term retention
 Anticipation of Rewards
 Learners are driven to act by the anticipation of rewards, tangible or
intangible
 Intrinsic Motivation
 The most potent learning "rewards" are intrinsically motivated within the
learner
 Strategic Investment
 The time and learning strategies learners invest into the language
learning process.

10.  Affective Principles
 Language Ego
 Self-Confidence
 Risk-Taking
 Language-Culture Connection

11.  Affective Principles
 Language Ego
 Learning a new language involves developing a new
mode of thinking - a new language "ego"
 Self-Confidence
 Success in learning something can be equated to the
belief in learners that they can learn it
 Risk-Taking
 Taking risks and experimenting "beyond" what is certain
creates better long-term retention
 Language-Culture Connection

12.  Linguistic Principles
 Native Language Effect
 Interlanguage
 Communicative Competence

13.  Linguistic Principles
 Native Language Effect
 A learner's native language creates both facilitating and
interfering effects on learning;
 Interlanguage
 At least some of the learner's development in a new language
can be seen as systematic;
 Communicative Competence
 Fluency and use are just as important as accuracy and usage
- instruction needs to be aimed at organizational, pragmatic
and strategic competence as well as psychomotor skills.

14.  Grammar Translation Method
 Direct Method
 The Audio-lingual Method
 The Communicative Language Teaching
Approach

15.  Objectives
 to give learners access to English literature,
 To develop their minds "mentally" through foreign
language learning

16.  Key Features
 (1) Classes are taught in the mother tongue, with
little active use of the target language.
 (2) Much vocabulary is taught in the form of lists
of isolated words.
 (3) Grammar provides the rules for putting words
together, and instruction often focuses on the
form and inflection of words.

17.  Key Features
 (4) Reading of difficult classical texts is begun
early.
 (5) Little attention is paid to the content of
texts, which are treated as exercises in in
grammatical analysis.
 (6) Often the only drills are exercises in
translating disconnected sentences from the
target language into the mother tongue

18.  Typical Techniques
 (1) Translation of a Literary Passage
 (2) Reading Comprehension Questions
 (3) Antonyms/Synonyms
 (4) Cognates
 (5) Deductive Application of Rule
 (6) Fill-in-the-blanks
 (7) Memorization
 (8) Use Words in Sentences
 (9) Composition

19.  Objectives
 The basic premise of the Direct Method is that
students will learn to communicate in the target
language, partly by learning how to think in that
language and by not involving L1 in the language
learning process whatsoever.
 Objectives include teaching the students how to
use the language spontaneously and
orally, linking meaning with the target language
through the use of realia, pictures or pantomime
(Larsen-Freeman 1986:24).
 There is to be a direct connection between
concepts and the language to be learned.

20.  Key Features
 (1) Classroom instruction is conducted exclusively in the target
language.
 (2) Only everyday vocabulary and sentences are taught.
 (3) Oral communication skills are built up in a carefully traded
progression organized around question-and-answer exchanges
between teachers and students in small, intensive classes.
 (4) Grammar is taught inductively.
 (5) New teaching points are taught through modeling and practice.
 (6) Concrete vocabulary is taught through
demonstration, objects, and pictures; abstract vocabulary is
taught by association of ideas.
 (7) Both speech and listening comprehension are taught.
 (8) Correct pronunciation and grammar are emphasized.

21.  Typical Techniques
 (1) Reading Aloud
 (2) Question and Answer Exercise
 (3) Student Self-Correction
 (4) Conversation Practice
 (5) Fill-in-the-blank Exercise
 (6) Dictation
 (7) Paragraph Writing

22.  Objectives
 To create communicative competence in learners.
 The most effective way to do this was for students to
"over-learn" the language being studied through
extensive repetition and a variety of elaborate drills.
 The idea was to project the linguistic patterns of the
language into the minds of the learners in a way that
made responses automatic and "habitual".
 To this end it was held that the language "habits" of
the first language would constantly interfere, and the
only way to overcome this problem was to facilitate
the learning of a new set of "habits" appropriate
linguistically to the language being studied.

23.  Key Features
 (1) New material is presented in dialog form.
 (2) There is dependence on mimicry, memorization of
set phrases, and over-learning.
 (3) Structures are sequenced by means of contrastive
analysis and taught one at a time.
 (4) Structural patterns are taught using repetitive
drills.
 (5) There is little or no grammatical
explanation. Grammar is taught by inductive analogy
rather than deductive explanation.
 (6) Vocabulary is strictly limited and learned in
context.

24.  Key Features (Cont’d)
 (7) There is much use of tapes, language labs, and visual
aids.
 (8) Great importance is attached to
pronunciation.
 (9) Very little use of the mother tongue by
teachers is permitted.
 (10) Successful responses are immediately
reinforced.
 (11) There is great effort to get students to
produce error-free utterances.
 (12) There is a tendency to manipulate language
and disregard content.

25.  Typical Techniques
 (1) Dialog Memorization
 (2) Backward Build-up (Expansion Drill)
 (3) Repetition Drill
 (4) Chain Drill
 (5) Single Slot Substitution Drill
 (6) Multiple-slot Substitution Drill
 (7) Transformation Drill
 (8) Question-and-answer Drill
 (9) Use of Minimal Pairs
 (10) Complete the Dialog
 (11) Grammar Games

26.  Basic Features of CLT
 (1) An emphasis on learning to communicate through
interaction in the target language.
 (2) The introduction of authentic texts into the
learning situation.
 (3) The provision of opportunities for learners to
focus, not only on the language but also on the
learning process itself.
 (4) An enhancement of the learner's own personal
experiences as important contributing elements to
classroom learning.
 (5) An attempt to link classroom language learning
with language activation outside the classroom.

27. CLT ALM
Meaning is paramount. Attends to structure and form
more than meaning
Dialogs, if used, center around Demands more memorization of
communicative functions and structure-based dialogs
are not normally memorized.
Contextualization is a basic Language items are not
premise necessarily contextualized.
Language learning is learning Language Learning is learning
to communicate. structures, sounds or words.

28. CLT ALM
Effective communication Mastery or "over-learning"
is sought. is sought.
Drilling may occur, but Drilling is a central
peripherically. technique
Comprehensible Native-speaker-like
pronunciation is sought pronunciation is sought.
Any device which helps Grammatical explanation
the learners is accepted - is avoided.
varying according to their
age, interest, etc.

29. CLT ALM
The target linguistic system will be The target linguistic system will be
learned best through the process learned through the overt teaching
of struggling to communicate. of the patterns of the system.
Communicative competence is the Linguistic competence is the
desired goal. desired goal.
Linguistic variation is a central Varieties of language are
concept in materials and methods. recognized but not emphasized.
Sequencing is determined by any The sequence of units is
consideration of content function, determined solely on principles of
or meaning which maintains linguistic complexity.
interest.

30. CLT ALM
Teachers help learners in any way The teacher controls the learners
that motivates them to work with the and prevents them from doing
language anything that conflicts wit the theory.
Language is created by the individual "Language is habit" so error must be
often through trial and error. prevented at all costs.
Fluency and acceptable language is Accuracy, in terms of formal
the primary goal: accuracy is judged correctness, is a primary goal.
not in the
abstract but in context.

31. CLT ALM
Students are expected to interact Students are expected to interact
with other people, either in the with the language system,
flesh, through pair and group work, embodied in machines or
or in their writings. controlled materials
The teacher cannot know exactly The teacher is expected to specify
what language the students will the language that students are to
use. use
Intrinsic motivation will spring from Intrinsic motivation will spring from
an interest in what is being an interest in the structure of the
communicated by thelanguage language

32.  Interactive Learning
 Learner-centered Learning
 Learner-centered Learning
 Learner-centered Learning
 Content-based Learning

33.  Interactive Learning:
 This concept goes right to the heart of communication
itself, stressing the dual roles of "receiver" and "sender" in any
communicative situation.
 Interaction creates the "negotiation between interlocutors"
which in turn produces meaning (semantics).
 The concept of interactive learning necessarily entails that
there will be a lot of pair and group work in the classroom, as
well as genuine language input from the "real world" for
meaningful communication.

34.  Learner-centered Learning:
 This kind of instruction involves the giving over of some
"power" in the language learning process to the learners
themselves.
 It also strives to allow for personal creativity and input from
the students, as well as taking into account their learning
needs and objectives.

35.  Cooperative Learning:
 This concept stresses the "team" like nature of the classroom
and emphasizes cooperation as opposed to
competition. Students share information and help, and
achieve their learning goals as a group.

36.  Task-based Learning:
 This concept equates the idea of a "learning task" to a
language learning technique in itself.
 This could be a problem solving activity or a project, but the
task has a clear objective, appropriate content, a
working/application procedure, and a set range of outcomes.

37.  Content-based Learning:
 This kind of learning joins language learning to content/subject
matter and engages them both concurrently.
 Language is seen as a tool or medium for acquiring knowledge
about other things, instantly proving its usefulness.
 An important factor in this kind of learning is that the content itself
determines what language items need to be mastered, not the
other way around.
 When students study math or science using English as the
medium, they are more intrinsically motivated to learn more of
the language.

38.  Community Language Learning
 The Silent Way
 Suggestopedia
 Total Physical Response
 The Natural Approach

39.  Key Features
 (1) Students are to be considered as "learner-clients" and
the teacher as a "teacher-councelor".
 (2) A relationship of mutual trust and support is considered essential
to the learning process.
 (3) Students are permitted to use their native language, and
are provided with translations from the teacher which
they then attempt to apply.
 (4) Grammar and vocabulary are taught inductively.
 (5) "Chunks" of target language produced by the students
are recorded and later listened to - they are also
transcribed with native language equivalents to
become texts the students work with.

40.  Key Features (Cont’d)
 (6) Students apply the target language independently
and without translation when they feel
inclined/confident enough to do so.
 (7) Students are encouraged to express not only how
they feel about the language, but how they feel about
the learning process, to which the teacher
expresses empathy and understanding.
 (8) A variety of activities can be included (for
example, focusing on a particular grammar or
pronunciation point, or creating new sentences
based on the recordings/transcripts).

41.  Typical Techniques
 (1) Tape Recording Student Conversation
 (2) Transcription
 (3) Reflection on Experience
 (4) Reflective Listening
 (5) Human Computer
 (6) Small Group Tasks

42.  Objectives
 Teachers using the Silent Way want their students to become highly
independent and experimental learners.
 Making errors is a natural part of the process and a key learning device, as
it is a sign that students are testing out their hypostheses and arriving at
various conclusions about the language through a trial and error style
approach.
 The teacher tries to facilitate activities whereby the students discover for
themselves the conceptual rules governing the language, rather than
imitating or memorizing
 In addition to the idea that students become more autonomous learners
and "develop their own inner criteria for correctness" (Larsen
Freeman, 1986:62), another key objective was to encourage students to
work as a group - to try and solve problems in the target language together.
 It was hoped that students would eventually be able to actively use the
language for self-expression, relating their thoughts, feelings and
perceptions.

43.  Key Features
 (1) Learning is facilitated if the learner
discovers or creates rather than remembers
and repeats what is to be learned.
 (2) Learning is facilitated by accompanying
(mediating) physical objects.
 (3) Learning is facilitated by problem-solving
involving the material to be learned.

44.  Typical Techniques
 (1) Sound-Color Chart - click here to see an
example
 (2) Teacher's Silence
 (3) Peer Correction
 (4) Rods
 (5) Self-correction Gestures
 (6) Word Chart
 (7) Fidel Chart - click here to see an example
 (8) Structured Feedback

45.  Objectives
 To tap into more of students' mental potential to learn, in
order to accelerate the process by which they learn to
understand and use the target language for
communication.
 Four factors considered essential in this process were
 the provision of a relaxed and comfortable learning
enviroment,
 the use of soft Baroque music to help increase alpha
brain waves and decrease blood pressure and heart rate,
 "de-suggestion" in terms of the psychological barriers
learners place on their own learning potential, and
 "suggestibility" through the encouragement of learners
assuming "child-like" and/or new roles and names in the
target language.

46.  Key Features
 (1) Learning is facilitated in an environment that is as
comfortable as possible, featuring soft cushioned seating
and dim lighting.
 (2) "Peripheral" learning is encouraged through the
presence in the learning environment of posters and
decorations featuring the target language and various
grammatical information.
 (3) The teacher assumes a role of complete authority and
control in the classroom.
 (4) Self-perceived and psychological barriers to learners'
potential to learn are "desuggested".
 (5) Students are encouraged to be child-like, take "mental
trips with the teacher" and assume new roles and names in
the target language in order to become more "suggestible".

47.  Key features (Cont’d)
 (6) Baroque music is played softly in the background to
increase mental relaxation and potential to take in and
retain new material during the lesson.
 (7) Students work from lengthy dialogs in the target
language, with an accompanying translation into the
students' native language.
 (8) Errors are tolerated, the emphasis being on content and
not structure. Grammar and vocabulary are presented and
given treatment from the teacher, but not dwelt on.
 (9) Homework is limited to students re-reading the dialog
they are studying - once before they go to sleep at night
and once in the morning before they get up.
 (10) Music, drama and "the Arts" are integrated into the
learning process as often as possible.

48.  Typical Techniques
 (1) Classroom Set-up
 (2) Peripheral Learning
 (3) Positive Suggestion
 (4) Visualization
 (5) Choose a New Identity
 (6) Role-play
 (7) First Concert
 (8) Second Concert
 (9) Primary Activation
 (10) Secondary Activation

49.  Objectives
 Learning needed to become more enjoyable
and less stressful.
 A natural way to accomplish this was to
recreate the natural way children learn their
native language, most notably through
facilitating an appropriate "listening" and
"comprehension" period, and encourage
learners to respond using right-brain motor
skills rather than left-brain language
"processing".

50.  Key Features
 (1) The teacher directs and students "act" in response - "The
instructor is the director of a stage play in which the students are
the actors" (Asher, 1977:43).
 (2) Listening and physical response skills are emphasized over
oral production.
 (3) The imperative mood is the most common language function
employed, even well into advanced levels. Interrogatives are also
heavily used.
 (4) Whenever possible, humor is injected into the lessons to make
them more enjoyable for learners.
 (5) Students are not required to speak until they feel naturally
ready or confident enough to do so.
 (6) Grammar and vocabulary are emphasized over other language
areas. Spoken language is emphasized over written language.

51.  Typical Techniques
 (1) Using Commands to Direct Behavior
 (2) Role Reversal
 (3) Action Sequence

52. • As part of the Natural Approach, students listen to the teacher
using the target language communicatively from the very
beginning.
• It has certain similarities with the much earlier Direct Method,
with the important exception that students are allowed to use
their native language alongside the target language as part of
the language learning process.
• In early stages, students are not corrected during oral
production, as the teacher is focusing on meaning rather than
form (unless the error is so drastic that it actually hinders
meaning).
• Communicative activities prevail throughout a language
course employing the Natural Approach, focusing on a wide
range of activities including games, roleplays, dialogs, group
work and discussions.

53. • There are three generic stages identified in
the approach:
• (1) Preproduction - developing listening skills;
• (2) Early Production - students struggle with the
language and make many errors which are
corrected based on content and not structure;
• (3) Extending Production - promoting fluency
through a variety of more challenging activities.

54.  Asher, James. 1977. Learning Another Language Through
Actions: The Complete Teacher's Guidebook. Los Gatos, CA: Sly
Oaks Productions. See also http://www.tpr-world.com/.
 Brown, H. Douglas. 1994. Teaching by Principles: An Interactive
Approach to Language Pedagogy. Prentice Hall.
 Finocchiaro, Mary & Brumfit, Christopher. 1983. The Functional-
Notional Approach: From Theory to Practice. Oxford University
Press.
 Krashen, Stephen D., & Terrell, Tracy D. 1983. The Natural
Approach: Language Acquisition in the Classroom. Pergamon
Press. See also Bilingual Education: Arguments For and (Bogus)
Arguments Against , Theory of Second Language Acquisition, A
Summary of Stephen Krashen's "Principles and Practice in Second
Language Acquisition", Why Bilingual Education?.

55.  Larsen-Freeman, Dianne. 1986. Techniques and Principles in Language
Teaching. New York: Oxford University Press.
 Nunan, David. 1991. Language Teaching Methodology: A Textbook for
Teachers. Prentice Hall. See also http://ec.hku.hk/dcnunan/
 Prator, Clifford H. & Celce-Murcia, Marianne. 1979. "An outline of
language teaching approaches." In Celce-Murcia, Marianne & McIntosh,
Lois (Ed.), Teaching English as a Second or Foreign Language. Newbury
House.
 Richards, Jack & Rodgers, Theodore. 1986. Approaches and Methods in
Language Teaching. New York: Cambridge University Press.
 Online Resources:
 Second Language Teaching Methodologies - Eric Clearinghouse on
Languages and Linguistics
 Teaching Techniques - From www.eslabout.com
 Whole Language, Whole Person - A Handbook of Language Teaching
Methodology