 Basics of adult learning  Extension methods in various fields • Individual Method  Farm and home visits, office calls, phone calls, e-mails, personal letters. • Group method  method and result demonstrations, study visits, meetings, farmer field schools, extension schools. • Mass method :  television, radio, leaflets, newspapers  Planning for effective use of the methods.  Role of audio, visual, and audio-visual aids in facilitating use of extension methods  Evaluating effectiveness of various extension methods.

1. SOKOINE UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURE
COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE
IRRIGATION AND WATER RESOURCES
ENGINEERING
(IWRE) SEMESTER 3,YEAR 2 2017/1018
EE 202
EXTENSION METHODS
COMBINED LECTURE NOTES
2018 musadoto

2. COURSE OUTLINE
 Basics of adult learning
 Extension methods in various fields
• Individual Method
 Farm and home visits, office calls, phone calls, e-mails, personal letters.
• Group method
 method and result demonstrations, study visits, meetings, farmer field
schools, extension schools.
• Mass method :
 television, radio, leaflets, newspapers
 Planning for effective use of the methods.
 Role of audio, visual, and audio-visual aids in facilitating use of extension methods
 Evaluating effectiveness of various extension methods.

3. Basics of adult learning
ADULT AS LEARNERS
• The field of adult learning was pioneered by Malcom Knowles .Knowles is credited with
being a fundamental influence in the development of the Humanist Learning Theory and
the use of learner constructed contracts or plans to guide learning experiences . He
identified the following characteristics of adult learners:
1. Adults are autonomous and self-directed:
• They need to be free to direct themselves. Their instructors must actively
involve adult participants in the learning process and serve as facilitators for
them. Specifically, they must get participants' perspectives about what topics to
cover and let them work on projects that reflect their interests.
• They should allow the participants to assume responsibility for presentations
and group leadership. They have to be sure to act as facilitators, guiding
participants to their own knowledge rather than supplying them with facts.
Finally, they must show participants how the class will help them reach their
goals (e.g., via a personal goals sheet).
2. Adults have accumulated a foundation of life experiences and knowledge:
• They may include work-related activities, family responsibilities, and previous
education.
• They need to connect learning to this knowledge/experience base.
• To help them do so, they should draw out participants' experience and
knowledge which is relevant to the topic.
• They must relate theories and concepts to the participants and recognize the
value of experience in learning.
3. Adults are goal-oriented:
• Adults usually know what goal they want to attain.
• They, therefore, appreciate an educational programme that is organized and has
clearly defined elements.
• Instructors must show participants how the programme will help them attain
their goals
4. Adults are relevancy-oriented:
• They must see a reason for learning something. Learning has to be applicable
to their work or other responsibilities to be of value to them.
• Therefore, instructors must identify objectives for adult participants before the
training begins.

4. • This means, also, that theories and concepts must be related to a setting
familiar to participants.
• This need can be fulfilled by letting participants choose projects that reflect
their own interests
5. Adults are practical:
• They focus on the aspects of a lesson most useful to them in their work.
• They may not be interested in knowledge for its own sake.
• Instructors must tell participants explicitly how the lesson will be useful to
them on the job.
6. As do all learners, adults need to be shown respect:
• Instructors must acknowledge the wealth of experiences that adult participants
bring to the classroom.
• These adults should be treated as equals in experience and knowledge and
allowed to voice their opinions freely in class.
MOTIVATING THE ADULT LEARNER
Another important aspect of adult learning is motivation. Adults learn when they are
motivated to learn.At least six factors serve as sources of motivation for adult learning are
explain as follows;
1. Social relationships: to make new friends, to meet a need for associations and
friendships.
2. External expectations: to comply with instructions from someone else; to
fulfill the expectations or recommendations of someone with formal authority.
3. Social welfare: to improve ability to serve mankind, prepare for service to the
community, and improve ability to participate in community work.
4. Personal advancement: to achieve higher status in a job, secure professional
advancement, and stay abreast of competitors.
5. Escape/Stimulation: to relieve boredom, provide a break in the routine of
home or work, and provide a contrast to other exacting details of life.
6. Cognitive interest: to learn for the sake of learning, seek knowledge for its
own sake, and to satisfy an inquiring mind.
BARRIERS AND MOTIVATION
• Unlike children and teenagers, adults have many responsibilities that they must balance
against the demands of learning.
• Because of these responsibilities, adults have barriers against participating in learning
• Some of these barriers include lack of time, money, confidence, or interest, lack of
information about opportunities to learn, scheduling problems, "red tape," and problems
with child care and transportation.
• Therefore, adult learners have to be motivated for learning to be effected.

5. Motivation factors can also be a barrier! What motivates adult learners?
Motivation. If the participant does not recognize the need for the information (or has been
offended or intimidated), all of the instructor's effort to assist the participant to learn will be in
vain.The instructor must establish rapport with participants and prepare them for learning; this
provides motivation. Instructors can motivate learners via several means:
 Set a feeling or tone for the lesson. Instructors should try to establish a friendly, open
atmosphere that shows the participants concern which will help them learn.
 Set an appropriate level of concern. The level of tension must be adjusted to meet the
level of importance of the objective. If the material has a high level of importance, a
higher level of tension/stress should be established in the class. However, people learn
best under low to moderate stress; if the stress is too high, it becomes a barrier to learning.
 Set an appropriate level of difficulty. The degree of difficulty should be set high enough
to challenge participants but not so high that they become frustrated by information
overload.
 The instruction should predict and reward participation, culminating in success
 In addition, participants need specific knowledge of their learning results (feedback ).
Feedback must be specific, not general.
 Participants must also see a reward for learning. The reward does not necessarily have to
be monetary; it can be simply a demonstration of benefits to be realized from learning the
material
 Finally, the participant must be interested in the subject.
 Interest is directly related to reward. Adults must see the benefit of learning in order to
motivate themselves to learn the subject.

6. EXTENSION METHODS
The term extension was first used to describe adult education programmes in England in the
second half of the 19th century; these programmes helped to expand - or extend - the work of
universities beyond the campus and into the neighbouring community.
The term was later adopted in the United States of America, while in Britain it was replaced with
"advisory service" in the 20th century.A number of other terms are used in different parts of the
world to describe the same or a similar concept:
 Arabic: Al-Ershad (“Guidance”)
 Dutch: Voorlichting (“lighting the path”)
 German: Beratung (“advisory work”)
 French: Vulgarisation (“popularisation”)
 Spanish: Capacitación (“Training” "Capacity Building")
 Thai, Lao: Song-Suem (“to promote”)
 Persian: Tarvij & Gostaresh (“to promote and to extend”)
Methods in general are systemic ways of reaching objectives. Extension methods consist of
techniques of communication between extension workers and client groups with the aim of
motivating and enabling them to find ways of solving their problems
1. Methods relate to influencing processes, and thus, determining methods means thinking in
terms of phases and sequences and of how it might be best to proceed.
2. Methods used must be specifically adapted to circumstances, because the use of any
communication technique depends on;- the number of people to be addressed, the problem
to solved, and the capacity of the extension service
TYPES OF EXTENSION METHODS
These are broadly categorized into three:
1.Individual methods
2.Group methods
3.Mass methods

7. COMMUNICATION TECHNIQUES AND METHODS
1.INDIVIDUAL METHODS
Individual methods that entails;- Farm and home visits, office calls, personal letters, phone calls,
e-mails and its related means like skype /messenger/facebook.
• It is not an effective way of promoting the well being of the mass of small-holder famers
or reaching large numbers of clients, but as the most intensive form of communication
between farmers and extension workers
• It plays role in private extension as well as in complementing group and mass extension
methods if the outreach of extension is defined geographically:
1. Individual counseling of contact farmers and functionaries in client group
 Communication of difficult technical matters
 Organizational advice on setting up and running group organizations
 Preparation of meetings, programs and campaigns
 Communication of up-to-date information
 Working out solutions to problems together

8. 2. Discussion with individual members of the client group
 The adviser can have discussion with individual farmers on an ongoing
basis in order to:-
 Gather information that he needs for checking the content and methods of
extension work
 Find out reactions to the development measures on offer
 Give farmers the chances to talk about issues they would not discuss in the
presence of others
 Avoid giving the impression that they are only willing to talk to contact
farmers and officials
Individual extension methods include:-
a) The extension talk
Extension talks differ from a normal conversation, an inquiry, or an interrogation .It is always
the client and his/her way of perceiving a problem that is the focus and starting point of the
extension worker.There are formal and informal extension talks.
 Formal talks usually take place on the farm or in adviser’s office – the aim of such
talks is to isolate concrete problems and work out ways of solving them In contrast
 There are Informal contacts that can occur on numerous occasions, and the
extension worker may well find this the easiest way of getting to understand the
wishes and difficulties of client groups and of establishing contact with them
• The course and the function of extension talks should be determined by the objective of
clearly identifying existing problems and their causes and trying to arrive at possible
solutions together.- A discussion will only be productive if there is a common way of
looking at a problem.
• The adviser must not be tempted to impose a solution on the farmer even though s/he
might be in a position to do so on account of his superior knowledge and power of
expression
• Understanding problems becomes easier when the person to be advised is respected as an
individual
• It is not uncommon to find prejudice, a desire to impress, and a disapproving attitude on
the part of the extension agent, which may result to a defensive attitude on the part of the
client and make extension advise an impossibility

9. Guidelines to conduct a problem-solving individual extension talk
1. Make sure that the extension agent and the client have the same perception of the overall
problem situation
2. Conduct a situation analysis of the problem together- to make sure they both see the
problem in the same way
3. Reflect together on the possible causes of the problem- what explanation does the farmer
give? Is s/he aware of other possible causes?
Are there more relevant causes that the extension agent could add?
4. Find together feasible solutions to address the most important problem
5. Help the client to opt for the correct option by giving relevant information about the
solutions discussed. For example;- what is needed, what are the costs involved and what
are the side effects e.t.c.
6. Offer your ongoing assistance in the process of implementation of the solutions
b) Individual extension farm/field visit
The extent to which discussions can take place on the farm depends on local conditions, the
farmer’s routines, the time of the day or year, and the content of the session
A discussion at the farm offers the following advantages compared to other methods of individual
extension methods
• The farmer feels secure in own surroundings and is more willing to discuss matters openly
• Specific problems like plant diseases, … can be investigated directly on the spot
• It is easier to get farmers to see benefit of innovations when they are in familiar
surroundings
• The adviser will be in a position to validate any claims made by the farmer and discuss
with the farmer to arrive at possible solutions
• Regular visits mean a regular exchange of ideas, which is necessary if the content and
methods of extension work are to continually brought up-to-date- This is essential for
training contact farmers and functionaries
• If the adviser is already familiar with the farm, his/her visit can be restricted more and
more to just dealing with essential technical matters

10. c) Individual extension in the office or home of adviser
Visits by farmers to the office or home of the extension agent in developing countries are not very
common. Reasons include the often considerable distance to the nearest extension agent, transport
costs and problems, perhaps bad experiences (having to wait a long time, having other activities
deferred, empty promises)
• Personal inhibition about presenting their problems.
• However, better educated and financially secure farmers with experience of dealing with
authorities are more likely to seek out the adviser for themselves, a fact which encourages
selective counseling of the better farmers and reduces the chances of the poorer client
groups
Rules to observed when extension work is carried out in the adviser’s office or home
1. The client groups must be informed of the adviser’s consultation hours which
must be held regularly
2. Problems often arise when farmers visit the office outside the consultation times,
sending visitors away or making them wait for hours is a frequent occurrence, but
not an acceptable way of dealing with people
3. Even if the office is only modestly furnished, tidiness and cleanliness should be
observed. Offering the client refreshment and the chance to sit down helps to
create a friendlier environment from the beginning
4. As an adviser try to make an effort to create an informal atmosphere. In the
discussion you should not confine yourself just to technical matters but also
observe the traditional courtesies and establish a positive relationship during the
extension session
5. Try as much as possible to minimize outside interruptions. It may be difficult in
large offices where telephone calls and other visitors make conversation difficult
and irritate the client
6. The main points of any important sessions should be recorded so that they can be
followed up
d) Individual extension by telephone, through letters and e-mail
 Meeting personally is absolutely necessary at the beginning of an adviser-client
relationship
 Later on, if a positive and trusting relationship exists, not every activity must involve
personal contact
 Where possible, shorter messages and standard information can also be transmitted
impersonally

11.  For example, letters, fax, e-mail or SMS, telephone calls are intermediate means of
contact that allow for a direct exchange of information and intermediate response to a
message, meaning that misunderstandings can be better prevented compared with one-way
communication
 The diffusion of mobile telephone networks even to remote areas makes things much
easier. But the more critical phases is in complex problem solving that calls for physical
presence and direct personal contact
e) Individual extension in the market place or at religious places
 Being present at the markets or near church or mosque may make easier for the clients to
approach the adviser
 The hurdle the clients have to overcome may be lower compared to calling by telephone
or going to the office, so that after a few words of greeting and small talk, the client can
indicate that s/he has problems and need support. Then an appointment for a meeting can
be made.
 Beginning to talk about the problem immediately is generally not appropriate; the
situation is too public, not confidential enough and too much noise and disturbance limits
the efficacy of interaction
2. GROUP METHODS
 Several members of the client group who are linked by formal or informal ties are
addressed at the same time.
 It is the most important method for advising and promoting the interests of a large
number of clients(farmers).
 The more it is supplemented by individual and mass extension methods, the greater are
its chances of success.
 However, group extension method is not always the best way of communicating
particularly difficult and complex subject matters.
 Group extension makes increased demands on the methodological and organizational
skills of the adviser
 Unless groupings of farmers already exist, it is difficult to form such groups and keep
them functioning
 The adviser cannot determine the composition of group, his/her task is, among other
things, to improve cohesion of groups, the group climate and how they function by
means of continuous training and counseling
 Group methods require good planning in selecting and inviting the participants in
determining and preparing programs
 The use of teaching and extension aids makes group methods more attractive and more
effective, but calls for more preparation and expertise on the part of the adviser in
handling the various media.

12.  The presence of specialists and representatives from complementary organizations is
often necessary and calls for advance planning and arrangements
 Compared to individual extension work, there is a greater chance of conflicts between
clients (farmers) and advisers, but this must be viewed positively; in groups clients can
emphasize their interests to a greater effect
Group extension work offer the following advantages over individual techniques
1. A large number of clients can be reached even if the material and staffing provisions of
extension service is limited
2. Extension costs per head of the client group are reduced
3. There are definite time savings compared to individual extension work
4. Group methods permit more participation by the client groups
5. Group extension work means increased observation of the adviser’s performance by the
clients/farmers, which is an incentive to greater effort on his part
6. Farmers /clients exchange their views of a problem, their experiences and judgments, and
this is more convincing than the same content coming from the adviser
7. Techniques of group dynamics can be used to accelerate the spread of information and
increase the willingness of the clients/ farmers to make decisions
8. If the adviser does not express him/herself adequately, s/he is frequently “translated” by
the members of the group
9. Advantages and disadvantages of an idea can be weighed up more thoroughly in group
discussions.
10. A group as a whole is prepared to accept a higher risk than an individual, and the potential
for superior performance of groups and teams compared to individuals can be activated for
extension purposes
11. Group extension motivates clients to move from interest stage to trial stage of learning.
12. When the reaction of the group is positive, the majority of the members may proceed to
adoption stage of an innovation
Examples of group methods
They include:
 Demonstrations; Meetings
 Group/panel discussions’ extension group/circle
 Field/tour trips
 Field days
 Farmer Field Schools
 Framer’s training centers
 Seminars/workshops e.t.c

13. a) Demonstrations
The demonstrations are the foundation of extension teaching.In areas where the educational level
of farmers is poor, demonstrations are particularly effective as “seeing is believing”
Demonstrations are one of the most effective tools for transfer of technology as they involve three
processes of learning: i.e Seeing, hearing and doing .
Types of demonstrations
There are two types of demonstrations
1. Method demonstration
2. Result demonstration
1. Method Demonstration
In a method demonstration, an improved practice is presented before a group step-by-step to teach
them how to carry it out.For example:- pruning, grafting, sowing, seed in lines, treating seeds
with chemical e.t.c The technique offer the following advantages:
 By this technique the farmers /clients learn effectively and understand easily
 It motivates people and stimulates action in an integrated way
 By this technique leadership is developed
 This technique provides confidence to extension workers and the farmers / clients
 Promotes social contact between the extension agents and people
 Accomplishes a change in practices at a relatively very low cost
Note: You can employ method demonstration during field days and farmers’ meetings
However, method demonstration has the following limitations
 The demonstration is based on the skill of the extension worker
 Success of demonstration depends upon adequate facilities available at the demonstration
site
 It has little effect if the technology (material and equipment) is too costly

14.  It involves a considerable amount of time for preliminary preparation
Step in method demonstration
1. Outline operations in logical steps
2. Identify key points
3. Carefully select materials and tools
4. Arrange for diagrams or other teaching aids
5. Rehearse demonstration until perfect
6.Make sure all the audience can see and hear you
7. Explain purpose and show application to local problem
8. Show each operation slowly, step by step
9. Emphasize key points
10. Invite members of audience to repeat demonstration
Basic principles for demonstrations
Four principles guide planning and preparations of demos
a. Participation: farmers’participation is very important they are confident if the
new practice is showned by fellow farmer or done in fellow farmer’s farm/land.
b. Simplicity : Do not try to show so many things at a time, make it-simple, clear-cut
demonstration of a single practices.
c. Learning: demo is a learning environment(class room) and should be run in a such
a way that farmers do in fact learn something.
d. Preparation :Never contemplate holding a demo without careful planning and
preparation
Planning demo
Ask yourself the following questions:
 What is the objective of the demo?
 Why the demo is the most suitable method and what would be the usefulness of the new
idea to be demonstrated?
 When shoud the demo be held? When is the most appropriate date and time both for the
famers and in terms of the application of the new ideas?

15.  Where is the demo? Which is a suitable location most convenient for the farmers.
Preparing the demo
Key areas of preparations
i. Consult the local for help and advice.
ii. Prepare a detailed plan of the demo(main issues, sequence of events,resources and
their sources.
iii. Collect information and materials available about the new idea or practice to
demonstrate and make sure the topic is familiar and the questions around it can be
answered
iv. Check that all support materials are ready(equips& aids)
v. Select farmers who will take part and orient them
vi. Publicize the demo widely
vii. Visit the demo site before hand to make sure everything is well set.
Supervising the Demo
You should supervise and not dominate and you should make sure that everyone present
benefit: do these
1. Welcome the participants
2. Explain the purpose of the demo
3. Conduct the demo
4. Summarize the main issues
5. Conclude the demon
Follow-up- interest generated by, decision taken at demo should be followed up.
2. Result demonstration
This method provides us result of improved practices in comparison with old practices.It is one of
the most important techniques to gain confidence of the farmers/ clients in terms of adoption of
recommendations.It has the following advantages:-

16. • It is an effective technique for introduction of a new extension programme
• It furnishes local proof of the desirability of recommended practices
• The result demonstration convinces the farmers / clients and is adopted readily
• It is a good source of collecting authentic data for meetings, radio talks and news items
• It also helps in discovering local leadership
• Provides valuable data for policy formulation
• It creates confidence in the extension workers and farmers
Limitations
• It is a time consuming practice
• Its success depends upon the efficiency of the extension worker
• The practice is open to seasonal threats
b) General Meetings
One of the oldest and most important methods of extension teaching.Meetings are called by
extension worker for training about the production technology of the next crops as well as
discussing the various problems being faced by farmers/ clients.Adequate time and
encouragement should be provided to the farmers / clients to discuss their difficulties
 General meetings include all kinds of meetings held by the extension worker except
demonstration meetings.
During the meeting, provision should be made for use of
 models,
 charts,
 specimens,
 pictures etc to illustrate points.
 Towards the end of the meeting allowance should be made for questions and answers
which would help clarify specific ideas
 Calling members of a group or the inhabitants of a local community together is the most
commonest group extension method despite level of formality meeting are to be well
thought out and planned;
 Purposed –there are a range of purposes for such meetings including:
 Informing (information meetings)
 Planning (planning meetings
 General community meetings
Forms of meetings
 Depending on the nature and purpose you should decide on the most appropriate form
 Remember smaller meetings are likely to meet specific needs of attendees
 For formal meetings, with chairperson, agenda and written record of proceedings are
appropriate when specific issues are to be dealt with or decisions reached.

17.  In informal meetings people feel more free and able to express their opinions or point of
view
 All in all it is important to make sure the discussion is well distributed among attendees .
Planning the meeting
Consider critically-Time (date) and location of the meeting place
 DATE and TIME–decide and announce in advance, should be convenient for
attendees and avoid clashes with other important events/activities.
 PLACE –should be easy to locate, well know place and appropriate for the form
of meeting, Confortable and with required facilities.NEVER hold a meeting at
midday, or very hot day, in open sun.
 After settling time and place issues use the following check list to continue
planning a meeting
 Publicity for the meeting
 Seating arrangement
 Audio-visual equips and materials or any other aids
 Agenda and order of events
 Guest speakers or other specialists to contribute
 Chairperson to lead the meeting(elected)
 Refreshment for speakers, and where necessary other participants
The extension worker should enlist the help of local leaders to:
1. Agree on the purpose of the meeting and to draw up tentative programme;
2. decide on and secure speakers;
3. Arrange for social and recreational aspects of the meeting;
4. Agree on the place and time of the meeting;
5. Select the chairman and advertise the meeting.
c) Group Discussion
Is the process by which or more persons pool their knowledge and feelings through mutual
agreement and clarify the issues under consideration. Through discussions various points of
view and the interests of the participants are aroused to do something towards solving their
problems
Key issues include:
a) a group
b) Working together(sharing)
c) A topic of interests

18. Guidelines for conducting group discussions
• Existing practices should not be criticized instead new ideas should be placed before the
group for discussion
• The extension worker should avoid giving the impression that his/her solution is the best
• Avoid imposing the pre-conceived idea on the people
• In the initial step it maybe unsuccessful, therefore the extension worker should not get
frustrated
• Before going for a meeting, a well-prepared concept and a clear idea may be borne in
mind
3.MASS METHODS
Mass media are those channels of communication which convey information to a large number of
people at a time.They include media which convey information through print (posters,
newspapers, leaflet), by sound (radio) and moving pictures (TV and films- on tapes or
VCD/DVD)
Functions of mass media in extension education
1. Spreading information awareness and creating interest in a community especially to the
innovators/venturesome
2. Giving timely warnings about a possible event like pest and disease outbreaks, and urgent
advice on what action to take
3. Multiplying the impact of extension activities. For example, a demonstration will only be
attended by a small number of farmers but results will reach many more If they are
reported in newspapers and radio or telecast on TV or multiplied in VCD/DVDs and
distributed to various groups of clients with similar interest.
4. Sharing experiences with other individuals and communities. The success of a village in
establishing, (example:- a tree plantation may stimulate other villages to do the same if it
is broadcast over a radio. Farmers are also interested in hearing the problems of other
farmers/clients and how they have overcome them
5. Answering questions and advising on problems common to a large number of farmers/
clients
6. Repeating information and advice. Information heard at a meeting or passed on by an
extension agent can soon be forgotten. It will be remembered more easily if it is repeated
by mass media
7. Farmers/ clients can be brought into contact with successful farmers/ clients from other
areas, respected leaders and agricultural experts through mass media

19. 8. Mass media communication requires specialist professional skills. Extension agents can
contribute to the successful use of mass media by providing material to media producers
in the form of newspaper stories, photographs, recorded interviews with farmers, items of
information about extension activities or ideas for new extension films and radio
programs. Extension agents may use mass media in their extension work e.g by
distributing posters and leaflets or by encouraging farmers to listen to farm broadcast on
radio and TV
Principles of media use
1.For effective extension work through mass media, the farmers/ clients must:-
2.Have access to the medium
3.Be exposed to the message- they may have radios/TV, but do they listen to
broadcasts related to farming or watch agricultural programs on TV?
4.Pay attention to the message information. It must be attractively presented
and relevant to farmers’ / clients’ interest
5.Understand the message
Quality of a mass media message
• Mass media messages are short lived and the audience may pay attention for only a short
time, particularly when the content is educational or instructional.
• If too much information is included, much of it will soon be forgotten.
• This means that the information passed through mass media should be:-
• Simple and short
• Repeated to increase understanding and help audience to remember
• Structured in a way that it aids memory
• Coordinated with other media and with advice given by extension agents- it is important
that what the farmers/ clients hear and see via mass media, matches what extension agent
tell them
• Extension agents can help media producers by keeping them informed of farmer’s
concerns and information needs, and by reporting any failure to understand the content of
the products of mass media
Types of mass media materials/methods
They are broadly grouped as
1. Print media--- posters, newspapers, magazines, leaflets, circular letters
2. Audio-visual media- ---radio/TV programs for a specific subject matter

20. A.PRINT MEDIA
The term print media is used to cover communication techniques that rely principally on
combination of printed words and pictures.They are our oldest formal combinations.To use
them effectively, the educational levels and literacy rates of the audience must be considered.
a) POSTERS
 They are useful in publicizing forthcoming events and for repeating messages that
farmers/ clients receive through other media
 Prepared as part of (agricultural) campaigns and issuing warnings or instructions
against outbreaks or losses
 They vary in size, and may also be supported with appropriate photographs
 They should be displayed in prominent places where a lot of people pass by
regularly.
 The most effective posters carry a simple message, catch people’s attention and are
easy to interpret
 Posters are put on walls of buildings, fences, trees, poles, bulletin boards, trucks,
automobiles e.tc
b) NEWSPAPERS
 Not widely available in rural areas. However, local dealers often read newspapers,
and a regular column on agricultural topics is useful to create awareness of new
ideas and to inform people of what other groups or communities are doing.
 Now-a-days many newspapers publish a special weekly page on agriculture.
c) MAGAZINES
 This are published on monthly or quarterly basis by the agricultural departments to
convey new information or seasonal calendars
 Farmers’ organizations, associations and chambers also publish periodic magazines
preferably in widely used local languages
d) LEAFLETS
 They can summarize the main points of a talk or demonstration, or provide detailed
information that would not be remembered simply by hearing it, such as fertilizer
application rates or names of seed varieties
e) CIRCULAR LETTERS
 They are used to publicize local extension activities to give timely information on
local farm/community problems and to summarize results of demonstrations so that
the farmers/clients who can not attend them may still benefit

21. B.AUDIO-VISUAL MEDIA
• Radio:- radio is a particularly useful mass medium for extension. They are electrically or
battery operated.
• Information can reach households directly and instantly throughout an area
• Urgent news and warnings can be communicated more quickly on radio than print media
• Radio is the best source of spreading new ideas and activities of extension to a large
number of people at a time
• It can enable one district or group to share its experience with others
Ways extension agents can achieve effective use of radio
a. Recording broadcasts on farming or message on a cassette recorder to replay to
farmers/clients later
b. Encouraging farmers/clients to listen to broadcasts either in their own houses or in-
groups at a community centre
c. Stimulating the habit of listening to broadcasts on farming/lessons and expectation
of gaining useful information from radio
 Television/VCD/DVD- combines vision (picture) with sound
 TV broadcasts are limited to far-flung areas
 Moreover, majority of poor famers/clients can not afford buying television sets
 Now-a-day’s TV centres are telecasting films on agriculture/nutrition regularly to teach
farmers/community members
 Video/films can also be made locally to show to the farmers/community members
Evaluating effectiveness of EM
• Extension teaching methods may be defined as devices used to create situations in which
new information can pass freely between the extension agent and the communities.
• It is the function of the extension worker to use the extension methods which provide
opportunities for people to learn and which stimulate mental and physical activities among
the people.
• For extension workers to be successful they must fulfill two conditions:-
• They must be proficient in technical knowledge and education process
• They must also have the right attitude towards people/communities
4 conditions are necessary for effective use of teaching methods
 The learning situation
 The learning objectives
 The learning experiences
 And the use of a variety of teaching methods

22. The learning situation
 This comprises the extension worker who:
- has clear objectives
- knows the subject matter to be taught
- Is able to communicate freely with the farmers/community members
 AND Includes the people who are capable and interested to in learning the subject matter
 The subject matter must be pertinent to farmers’ /communities’ needs and which is taught
at people’s intellectual level.
 The learning situation should be free from outside distraction
- should be suitable to the subject matter presented
- should be available when required
- and ought to be skillfully used
The learning objectives
• As a pre-condition, objectives for the use of extension methods must be clearly
established- An objective is an end towards which teaching is directed.
• Therefore, any purposeful teaching has specific objectives which must contain four basic
elements- people to be taught, behaviour changes to be made, subject matter to be taught
and life situation in which action is to take place
The learning experience
• That is the employment of effective learning experiences.
• A learning experience is defined as the mental or physical reaction one makes in a
learning situation through seeing, hearing or performing activities during a learning
process