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Scientific Research

An Najah National University

Author:O. Tamimi

Contents
Meaning of Scientific Research
Examples of Scientific Research
Who is a Researcher, What Does a Researcher Do
What is the difference between Scientist and Researcher?
Choosing a Research Topic by a Scientist
Classification of Scientific Research
Pure Research:
Applied Research:
Additional Classifications
Qualitative research
Quantitative research
Characteristics of Research
Research Process (Fundamental Steps)
Step-1 Make an Observation, Find a Problem & Ask a Question
Observation
Find a Problem
Scientific Question
Examples of Observations & Scientific Questions
Page-1 An Najah National University O. Tamimi

Contents
Step-2 Literature Review (Background-Research)
Sources of Literature Review
Primary Sources
Secondary Sources
Step-3Testable Hypothesis
Step-4 Design an Experiment (Procedure)
Step-5 Collecting & Analyzing Data
Primary Data
Secondary Data
Step-6 What to do if Hypothesis is wrong
Step-7 Writing Report & Publish Findings
Research Title
Scientific Question
Testable Hypothesis
Procedure
Data Collection, Data Analysis & Discussion
Conclusion
Further Reading & References

Meaning of Scientific Research
 The systematic process of collecting and analyzing information to
increase our understanding of an issue
 Systematic observation of phenomena for the purpose of learning new
facts or testing the application of theories to known facts
 Its an original contribution to the existing stock of knowledge
 The research aims at seeking answers to problems through the
application of scientific mythology , which guarantees that the
information is reliable and unbiased
Examples of Scientific Research (current research)
 Effect of GPS satellite on health
 Electrical properties of silicon material or the semiconductor diodes
 Effect of genetically modified food on health
 Contaminated water and cancer
 Studying the effect of global warming on see levels & wild-life


The word "research" can be confusing because it is frequently used in
conversation to describe a non-scientific searching process. For example, you
might say that you conducted "research" to find the best price for a computer, or
maybe you "researched" the internet for the best deal of Ford car. In both
instances you clearly did not follow a rigorous, scientific method of solving
problems.


Who is a Researcher, What Does He Do
A researcher is a knowledgeable person who has a good background in
science with a good written and communication skills

A researcher should be able to carry out a range of professional
assignments
1.Define research subject
2.Gather information, techniques, studies from various literatures
3.Carries out experiments
4.Analyze & interpret research results
5.Prepare research reports
6.Takes part in seminars and workshops
What is the difference between Scientist and Researcher?
 A scientist is highly specialized professional who has a significant
knowledge and expertise in one or many disciplines
 A scientist is a researcher but not vice-versa


Choosing a Research Topic by a Researcher

Depends on the researcher’s subject of interest or specialty area
e.g. Chemical Engineering

The interest of a researcher in exploring ideas or issues
e.g. Plastic Recycling (Dissolving the Plastics )

Problems detected and needing a solution in practical or theoretical terms
e.g. Studying the effectiveness of acetone extraction C3H6O in dissolving
plastic

Questions arising from experience or reading the literature
e.g. Studying how safe the x-rays on pregnant women


Classification of Scientific Research
Pure Research: it is undertaken for the sake of knowledge without any intention
to apply it in practice (Natural/Physics research) e.g. Newton Laws
Pure research tends to investigate answers like the following questions
 How did the universe begin ?
 What the protons, neutrons & electrons composed of ?
 Why are there 7 colors in a rainbow ?

Applied Research: aims at finding a solution for an immediate problem facing
a society or an industrial/business organization
Applied research may investigate ways to:
 Treat or cure a specific disease
 Improve the energy efficiency of offices or homes
 Discovery of x-ray


Additional Classifications
Quantitative vs. Qualitative Research

Qualitative Research
 Designed to explore and understand people's
beliefs, experiences, attitudes, behavior and interactions
 Used in social science

Quantitative Research
 Relies primarily on the collection and analysis of numerical data
 Lab research and engineering research falls under the quantitative
research terms


Characteristics of Research
The following represents the mains characteristics of a scientific research

Purpose: the purpose of research is clearly stated

Solution: it is solution oriented and directed towards the solution of a
problem

Relation: Determines the relation between two or more problems

Skills: Research require a careful skill in recording and reporting the data

Knowledge: Research requires that researcher have full knowledge of the
problem under the study

Replication: research is replicable. The design, procedures and result of
scientific research should be replicable so that any person other than the
researcher assess the validity of research

Research Process
(Fundamental steps)
Research process consists of series of
Actions or steps necessary to effectively
carry out research


Step-1 Make an Observation, Find a Problem & Ask a
Question
The first step of a scientific research is divided into three main steps
1- Observe a specific situation
2- Identify the problem in the situation
3- Formulate a question
Observation
 Observation ”means“ looking at something without influencing it and
simultaneously recording it for later analysis, or facts you have discovered
using your five senses
 Scientific observations can be made directly with our own senses or may be
made indirectly through the use of tools
Scientific Question
 Any question related to an observation and answered through scientific
investigation
 Often comes from the thought “what we have right now is not good
enough, we can do better…”
 Scientific question usually starts with: How, What, When & Who


 Examples of Scientific Questions
Why the sky turns red when the sun goes down?
Why the color of an apple-slice turns to brown after few hours?

Research Problem
 It is a clear and a stand‐alone statement which explains what are you aiming
or trying to achieve
 To formulate a research problem, Firstly select your research topic and
describe the problem at the beginning of research
 Research problem is not a problem in the normal sense (is actually the
unknown part of a research)
 Problem statement shall have an outcome based verb

identify define analyze review justify
formulate explain apply suggest clarify
create design evaluate purpose suggest


 Examples
Analyze the readiness of Palestinian cities to a massive earthquake
Identify the risks of plastic enclosures for reservoir food on health


Observations & Scientific Questions Examples

“Observation” Discovery of water in the form of water-ice on mars planet
“Scientific question” Is there any life forms on the planet? (being investigated)

“ Marie Curie’s observation” Uranium causes air ionization (electrically
conductive).
“Scientific question” Is the Uranium a radioactive element ?
“Observation” The compass needle aligns itself when an electric current
flows through a nearby wire
“Scientific question” What makes the needle of a compass to align. This has
led to the discovery of electromagnetism which revolutionized our world
Note: Good observations lead to scientific discoveries

Step-2 Reviewing Literature (Background Research)
Why Reviewing Literatures ?
 It’s a regular rule that research projects begins with conducting literature
review, which means to identify related research projects
 Literature review aim to get an insight and to get a view work of others
 Literature review helps you anticipate common problems in your research
context
 you should look at conclusions, theories, arguments that underline the work
and look for similarities and differences with closely related work
By Studying of Literature we Would Like to Find the Answers to Following
Questions:
 Did anybody else formulate the same research problem in the past?
 Did anybody else solve the same or similar problem in the past?
 Are the results of the previous solving acceptable for us or not?
Writing a Good Literature Review Requires
 You have to have an ability to show why your research should be carried out
 why did you choose certain theories to work with
 And how your work already adds to research carried out.

Step-2 Literature Review (Background Research)

Sources of Literature Review
The term sources refer to print, electronic or visual materials necessary for your
research. Sources are classified into primary and secondary sources
Primary Sources (Highly Reliable, Up to Date Knowledge)
 Scientific Journals
 Seminar papers
 Academic Thesis
 Academic Dissertation
 Patents
Secondary Sources
 Lab Reports
 Text-Books
 eBook
 Documentaries
 Web-Links (Google scholar, company websites or Forums)


Step-3 Testable Hypothesis
Hypothesis
A hypothesis is a special kind of prediction that forecasts (predicts) how
changing one part of an experiment will affect the results. It is NOT a guess. It is
an informed and well-thought out prediction that requires background
information. You can also think of it as a cause-effect statement.
A hypothesis is best written in the “If ______________, then _____________.”
Examples of a Hypothesis (Using If, Then Statement)
If the temperature of sea water increases, then the amount of salt that
dissolves in the water increases.
Scientific Question: How does the amount of daylight affect plant growth ?
Hypothesis: If the amount of daylight increases, then the growth of a plant
increases
Scientific Question: How does the color of a surface affect its temperature?
Hypothesis: if the color of a surface is black then the temperature absorption is
high

Step-3 Testable Hypothesis

Example
If color change in leaves is related to temperature, then exposing leaves to
direct sunlight will make them to burn

Any hypothesis statement has two variables: Independent variable &
Dependent variable

Dependent variable → (Leaves)
Independent variable → (Temperature)
More Hypothesis Examples (Using May Statement)
 Chocolate may cause pimples
 Salt soil may affect plant growth
 Plant growth may be affected by the color of light
 Bacterial growth may be affect by temperature
 Ultra violet light may cause a skin cancer

Step- 4 Design an Experiment (Procedure)

Designing an Experiment is Influenced by Many Factors
Determine place, time, budget for the experiment
 Means of obtaining the information (Data collection method)
 Resources available for the research
 Skills of the research personnel

The Procedure is an Integral Part of the Experimental Design, the Following
Represents the Fundamental Steps of Writing a Procedure
Includes a list of steps that the scientist takes to complete the experiment
 Very detailed list that is numbered 1,2,3.. order (its not a paragraph)
 The procedure should allow others to repeat it. (reproducible)
 Your procedure is considered a Good one if someone do it and achieve the
same results as you did


Step- 5 Collecting / Analyzing Data

 Data collection is an important aspect of any scientific research, there are
different approaches for data

 Data Quantitative research is usually expressed in numerical form and
presented in tables and figures

 Primary Data (Not published yet): Collected by the researcher himself either
through experiments (e.g. Lab or Field experiments) or through surveys
Survey Data is collected using one of the following ways:
 Observation
 Personal interview
 Telephone interview
 Questionnaires
 Secondary Data (Readily available data): is a data found in published
sources such as (Journal, Internet & Books)


Step- 5 Collecting / Analyzing Data

After the research data has been obtained, Data analysis shall be carried out
using a closely related operations, such as:

 Presenting data in Tables & Figures
 Study the relationship between variables (direct, indirect, proportional, etc…)
 Percentage, average & coefficient computations using statistical formulas


Step-6: (Decision) Hypothesis Testing
After analyzing the data, the researcher is in a position to test the hypotheses,
to see if the facts support hypothesis or they happen to be contrary
Hypothesis testing involves stating the hypothesis by converting the research
question into null and alternative hypothesis

Null Hypothesis: (Denoted H0)
 Attempts to show that there is no-relationship between hypothesis variables
(Doesn’t relate hypothesis variables in anyway)
 statement that is capable of being proven false (It is simple to disprove)
 Examples
(Chocolate may not cause pimples)
( Fertilizers have no effects on plant growth)
Alternative Hypothesis: (Denoted H1)
 It means that there is a relationship between variables (opposite to Null-
Hypothesis)
 Example
(Chocolate may cause pimples)

Step-6: (Decision) Hypothesis Testing
The experiment is to be carried out in an attempt to prove or reject the null-
hypothesis

There are two possible decisions:

 Conclude that there is enough evidence to support the alternative
hypothesis. Reject the null. (Chocolate may cause pimples)

 Conclude that there is not enough evidence to support the alternative
hypothesis.
Fail to reject the null. (Chocolate may not cause pimples)
What to do if Hypothesis (Alternative) is Wrong
 Amend the hypothesis and do the experiment again
 Stop the research


Step- 7 Writing Report & Publish Findings
Writing and publishing a research report is necessary in order to
 Circulate the ideas, facts and findings to the others
 To make a good contribution to the existing stock of knowledge
 To get the ideas protected
Research report shall be carefully written keeping in view the following
elements:
 Title page
 Abstract
 Background research (Introduction).
 Experimental procedure
 Data analysis and discussion (includes data table and graph(s))
 Conclusions
Research report has many different styles such as:
■ Lab Report
■ Scientific Literature (published in Journal, Conference & patent, Books)
■ Project Thesis (For educational purposes)
■ Project Dissertation (For educational purposes)

Sample Scientific Research
Research Title: Light effects on colored surfaces
Scientific Question: How does the color of a surface affect its temperature?
Testable Hypothesis: If a dark-colored object is exposed to light, then it is
expected to get worm

Material


Procedure
1) Place the two containers on a level surface and allow the air inside the
containers to equalize with air in the room. This should take no more than
about 10 minutes.
2) Cut a strip of dark paper to fit one container and tape this paper around the
outside of the container covering its surface.
3) Cut a strip of light paper to fit the other container and tape this paper around
the outside of the container covering its surface.
4) Cut two pieces of foam to firmly fit like caps inside the top of each of the
containers.
5) Cut slots in each of the foam caps for inserting the thermometers, insert one
thermometer inside the slot of each of the foam caps.
6) Place the caps with the thermometers inserted firmly on each
container, making sure that the liquid in the thermometer is visible. Record
the temperature of
each thermo-meter.
7) Put the two containers side by side and place the heat lamp about 6 inches
from the containers. Plug the light into an electrical outlet and turn it on.

Data Collection, Data Analysis & Discussion
8) Record the temperature of both thermometers at 5-minute intervals, 5
different times.
Data Collection
Temp. (C°) Temp. (C°)
Time (Minutes)
Dark Container Light Container
0 13 13
5 16 15
10 21 19
15 27 24
20 31 27
25 35 30
Experimental Results

Experimental Setup

Data Analysis
Calculating the average temp.

Tmax (Light-Container) = 30 Cº
Tmax (Dark-Container) = 35 Cº


The figure demonstrates the temp rise for both; light container and dark container
Discussion
as expected, the drawing indicates that there was a temperature rise in both
containers, but based on the data analysis (average and max temperatures) it
can be noticed that the dark colored container reached a higher temperature
than the light-colored one.

Conclusion

Note: Because the assumed hypothesis at the beginning of the experiment is
proven correct, it is possible to carry on and write down a conclusion that
summaries the outcomes

It can be concluded that the light and dark surfaces show a difference in
increase of temperature over a 25-minute period, with the dark-colored
container reaching the highest temperature reading. Dark surfaces become
warmer because they absorb more of the incident radiation. Light-colored
surfaces reflect more of the incident radiation, hence absorbing less radiation.
The higher the absorption, the warmer the temperature.



Edgar Bright Wilson (1990), Introduction to scientific research. 3rd ed. NY. 367
Steve Chapman (2005), Research Methods. 3rd ed. NY. 207

C. R. Kothari (2006), Research Methodology: Methods & Techniques. 2nd ed.
New-Delhi. 398
http://undsci.berkeley.edu/index.php

http://www.null-hypothesis.co.uk/science//item/what_is_a_null_hypothesis


http://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/scientific-papers-13815490
http://www.bms.bc.ca/resources/library/pdf/GuidelinesScientificPapers.pdf
http://www.visionlearning.com/library/module_viewer.php?mid=148
http://www.researchproposalsforhealthprofessionals.com/dissemination_of_findings.htm
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http://www.slideshare.net/ytaki/introduction-to-academic-publishing
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http://www.medicine.ox.ac.uk/bandolier/booth/glossary/qualres.html
http://wilderdom.com/research/QualitativeVersusQuantitativeResearch.html
http://www.writing.engr.psu.edu/workbooks/laboratory.html
http://www.pages.drexel.edu/~pyo22/students/hypothesis.html.
http://mattforte.hubpages.com/hub/Scientific-Methods-of-Research
http://undsci.berkeley.edu/article/0_0_0/howscienceworks_18
http://www.sciencemadesimple.com/scientific_method.html#PREDICTION
http://www.bcps.org/offices/lis/researchcourse/

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