Teaching english language

Teaching English Language
Methods and approaches

Contents
1 Language education 1
1.1 Need for language education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 History of foreign language education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2.1 Ancient to medieval period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2.2 18th century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2.3 19th–20th century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.3 Teaching foreign language in classrooms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.4 Online and self-study courses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.4.1 Audio recordings and books . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.4.2 Internet and software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.5 Learning strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.5.1 Listening as a way of learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.5.2 Reading as a way to learn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.5.3 Learning vocabulary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.5.4 Code switching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.6 Teaching strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.6.1 Blended learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.6.2 Skills teaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.6.3 Sandwich technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.6.4 Mother tongue mirroring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.6.5 Back-chaining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.7 Language education by region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.8 Language study holidays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.9 Minority language education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.9.1 Minority language education policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.9.2 Materials and e-learning for minority language education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.10 Acronyms and abbreviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.11 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.12 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.13 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.14 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.15 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
i

ii CONTENTS
2 Teaching English as a foreign language 10
2.1 Teaching techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.1.1 Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.1.2 Communicative language teaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.1.3 Blended learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.1.4 Online classroom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.2 Qualifications for TEFL teachers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.3 Pay and conditions worldwide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.4 TEFL region and country locations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.4.1 Europe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.4.2 Asia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.4.3 Americas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.4.4 Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.4.5 India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.7 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.8 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3 Direct method (education) 18
3.1 Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
3.2 Aims . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
3.3 Essentials of direct method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
3.4 Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
3.5 Nature of direct method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.6 Merits of direct method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.7 Demerits of Direct method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.8 Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.9 Pedagogy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3.10 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.11 Historical context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.12 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.13 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.14 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
4 Grammar-translation method 22
4.1 History and philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
4.2 Principles and goals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
4.3 Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
4.4 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
4.5 Reception . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
4.6 Influence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

CONTENTS iii
4.7 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
4.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
5 Audio-lingual method 24
5.1 Oral drills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
5.2 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
5.3 Historical roots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
5.4 In practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
5.5 Fall from popularity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
5.6 Today . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
5.7 In popular culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
5.8 Main Features of Audio Lingual Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
5.9 Techniques of Audio Lingual Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
5.10 Emphasizing the audio in the Audio-Lingual Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
5.11 Aims of Audio Lingual Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
5.12 Advantages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
5.13 Disadvantages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
5.14 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
5.15 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
6 Communicative language teaching 29
6.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
6.1.1 Societal influences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
6.1.2 Academic influences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
6.1.3 Communicative syllabi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
6.2 Outline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
6.3 Classroom activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
6.4 Critiques of CLT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
6.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
6.6 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
6.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
7 English for academic purposes 32
7.1 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
7.2 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
7.3 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
8 English for specific purposes 33
8.1 Definition of ESP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
8.1.1 Absolute characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
8.1.2 Variable characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
8.2 Teaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
8.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

iv CONTENTS
8.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
8.5 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
8.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
8.6.1 Organizations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
8.6.2 Articles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
8.6.3 Journals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
8.7 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
8.7.1 Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
8.7.2 Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
8.7.3 Content license . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

Chapter 1
Language education
“Language Teaching” redirects here. For the journal, see
Language Teaching (journal).
Language education is the teaching and learning of a
foreign or second language. Language education is a
branch of applied linguistics.
1.1 Need for language education
Increasing globalization has created a large need for peo-
ple in the workforce who can communicate in multiple
languages. The uses of common languages are in areas
such as trade, tourism, international relations, technol-
ogy, media, and science. Many countries such as Korea
(Kim Yeong-seo, 2009), Japan (Kubota, 1998) and China
(Kirkpatrick & Zhichang, 2002) frame education poli-
cies to teach at least one foreign language at the primary
and secondary school levels. However, some countries
such as India, Singapore, Malaysia, Pakistan, and the
Philippines use a second official language in their gov-
ernments. According to GAO (2010), China has recently
been putting enormous importance on foreign language
learning, especially the English language.
1.2 History of foreign language ed-
ucation
1.2.1 Ancient to medieval period
Although the need to learn foreign languages is almost as
old as human history itself, the origins of modern lan-
guage education are in the study and teaching of Latin
in the 17th century. Latin had for many centuries been
the dominant language of education, commerce, religion,
and government in much of the Western world, but it
was displaced by French, Italian, and English by the end
of the 16th century. John Amos Comenius was one of
many people who tried to reverse this trend. He com-
posed a complete course for learning Latin, covering the
entire school curriculum, culminating in his Opera Didac-
tica Omnia, 1657.
In this work, Comenius also outlined his theory of
language acquisition. He is one of the first theorists
to write systematically about how languages are learned
and about pedagogical methodology for language acqui-
sition. He held that language acquisition must be allied
with sensation and experience. Teaching must be oral.
The schoolroom should have models of things, and fail-
ing that, pictures of them. As a result, he also published
the world’s first illustrated children’s book, Orbis Sensual-
ium Pictus. The study of Latin diminished from the study
of a living language to be used in the real world to a sub-
ject in the school curriculum. Such decline brought about
a new justification for its study. It was then claimed that
its study developed intellectual abilities, and the study of
Latin grammar became an end in and of itself.
“Grammar schools” from the 16th to 18th centuries fo-
cused on teaching the grammatical aspects of Classical
Latin. Advanced students continued grammar study with
the addition of rhetoric.[1]
1.2.2 18th century
The study of modern languages did not become part of
the curriculum of European schools until the 18th cen-
tury. Based on the purely academic study of Latin, stu-
dents of modern languages did much of the same ex-
ercises, studying grammatical rules and translating ab-
stract sentences. Oral work was minimal, and students
were instead required to memorize grammatical rules
and apply these to decode written texts in the target lan-
guage. This tradition-inspired method became known as
the grammar-translation method.[1]
1.2.3 19th–20th century
Innovation in foreign language teaching began in the 19th
century and became very rapid in the 20th century. It led
to a number of different and sometimes conflicting meth-
ods, each trying to be a major improvement over the pre-
vious or contemporary methods. The earliest applied lin-
guists included Jean Manesca, Heinrich Gottfried Ollen-
dorff (1803–1865), Henry Sweet (1845–1912), Otto Jes-
persen (1860–1943), and Harold Palmer (1877–1949).
1

2 CHAPTER 1. LANGUAGE EDUCATION
Henry Sweet was a key figure in establishing the applied linguis-
tics tradition in language teaching
They worked on setting language teaching principles and
approaches based on linguistic and psychological theo-
ries, but they left many of the specific practical details
for others to devise.[1]
Those looking at the history of foreign-language educa-
tion in the 20th century and the methods of teaching (such
as those related below) might be tempted to think that
it is a history of failure. Very few students in U.S. uni-
versities who have a foreign language as a major manage
to reach something called “minimum professional pro-
ficiency”. Even the “reading knowledge” required for a
PhD degree is comparable only to what second-year lan-
guage students read and only very few researchers who are
native English speakers can read and assess information
written in languages other than English. Even a number
of famous linguists are monolingual.[2]
However, anecdotal evidence for successful second or
foreign language learning is easy to find, leading to a
discrepancy between these cases and the failure of most
language programs, which helps make the research of
second language acquisition emotionally charged. Older
methods and approaches such as the grammar transla-
tion method or the direct method are dismissed and even
ridiculed as newer methods and approaches are invented
and promoted as the only and complete solution to the
problem of the high failure rates of foreign language stu-
dents.
Most books on language teaching list the various meth-
ods that have been used in the past, often ending with
the author’s new method. These new methods are usu-
ally presented as coming only from the author’s mind,
as the authors generally give no credence to what was
done before and do not explain how it relates to the new
method. For example, descriptive linguists seem to claim
unhesitatingly that there were no scientifically based lan-
guage teaching methods before their work (which led to
the audio-lingual method developed for the U.S. Army
in World War II). However, there is significant evidence
to the contrary. It is also often inferred or even stated
that older methods were completely ineffective or have
died out completely when even the oldest methods are
still used (e.g. the Berlitz version of the direct method).
One reason for this situation is that proponents of new
methods have been so sure that their ideas are so new
and so correct that they could not conceive that the older
ones have enough validity to cause controversy. This was
in turn caused by emphasis on new scientific advances,
which has tended to blind researchers to precedents in
older work.[2]
(p. 5)
There have been two major branches in the field of lan-
guage learning, the empirical and theoretical, and these
have almost completely separate histories, with each gain-
ing ground over the other at one point in time or another.
Examples of researchers on the empiricist side are Jes-
person, Palmer, and Leonard Bloomfield, who promote
mimicry and memorization with pattern drills. These
methods follow from the basic empiricist position that
language acquisition basically results from habits formed
by conditioning and drilling. In its most extreme form,
language learning is seen as basically the same as any
other learning in any other species, human language being
essentially the same as communication behaviors seen in
other species.
On the theoretical side are, for example, Francois Gouin,
M.D. Berlitz, and Elime de Sauzé, whose rationalist theo-
ries of language acquisition dovetail with linguistic work
done by Noam Chomsky and others. These have led to
a wider variety of teaching methods ranging from the
grammar-translation method to Gouin’s “series method”
to the direct methods of Berlitz and de Sauzé. With
these methods, students generate original and meaningful
sentences to gain a functional knowledge of the rules of
grammar. This follows from the rationalist position that
man is born to think and that language use is a uniquely
human trait impossible in other species. Given that hu-
man languages share many common traits, the idea is that
humans share a universal grammar which is built into our
brain structure. This allows us to create sentences that we
have never heard before but that can still be immediately
understood by anyone who understands the specific lan-
guage being spoken. The rivalry of the two camps is in-
tense, with little communication or cooperation between
them.[2]

1.4. ONLINE AND SELF-STUDY COURSES 3
1.3 Teaching foreign language in
classrooms
Main article: Methods of teaching foreign languages
Language education may take place as a general school
High school Spanish taught as a second language to a class
of native English speakers at an American private school in
Massachusetts.
subject or in a specialized language school. There are
many methods of teaching languages. Some have fallen
into relative obscurity and others are widely used; still
others have a small following, but offer useful insights.
While sometimes confused, the terms “approach”,
“method” and “technique” are hierarchical concepts.
An approach is a set of assumptions about the nature of
language and language learning, but does not involve pro-
cedure or provide any details about how such assumptions
should be implemented into the classroom setting. Such
can be related to second language acquisition theory.
There are three principal “approaches":
1. The structural view treats language as a system of
structurally related elements to code meaning (e.g.
grammar).
2. The functional view sees language as a vehicle to
express or accomplish a certain function, such as re-
questing something.
3. The interactive view sees language as a vehicle for
the creation and maintenance of social relations,
focusing on patterns of moves, acts, negotiation
and interaction found in conversational exchanges.
This approach has been fairly dominant since the
1980s.[1]
A method is a plan for presenting the language material
to be learned, and should be based upon a selected ap-
proach. In order for an approach to be translated into a
method, an instructional system must be designed con-
sidering the objectives of the teaching/learning, how the
content is to be selected and organized, the types of tasks
to be performed, the roles of students, and the roles of
teachers.
1. Examples of structural methods are grammar trans-
lation and the audio-lingual method.
2. Examples of functional methods include the oral ap-
proach / situational language teaching.
3. Examples of interactive methods include the direct
method, the series method, communicative lan-
guage teaching, language immersion, the Silent
Way, Suggestopedia, the Natural Approach, Total
Physical Response, Teaching Proficiency through
Reading and Storytelling and Dogme language
teaching.
A technique (or strategy) is a very specific, concrete
stratagem or trick designed to accomplish an immediate
objective. Such are derived from the controlling method,
and less directly, from the approach.[1]
1.4 Online and self-study courses
Hundreds of languages are available for self-study, from
scores of publishers, for a range of costs, using a variety
of methods.[3]
The course itself acts as a teacher and has
to choose a methodology, just as classroom teachers do.
1.4.1 Audio recordings and books
Audio recordings use native speakers, and one strength is
helping learners improve their accent.[4]
Some recordings
have pauses for the learner to speak. Others are continu-
ous so the learner speaks along with the recorded voice,
similar to learning a song.[5]
Audio recordings for self-study use many of the methods
used in classroom teaching, and have been produced on
records, tapes, CDs, DVDs and websites.
Most audio recordings teach words in the target language
by using explanations in the learner’s own language. An
alternative is to use sound effects to show meaning of
words in the target language.[6][7]
The only language in
such recordings is the target language, and they are com-
prehensible regardless of the learner’s native language.
Language books have been published for centuries,
teaching vocabulary and grammar. The simplest books
are phrasebooks to give useful short phrases for travelers,
cooks, receptionists,[8]
or others who need specific vocab-
ulary. More complete books include more vocabulary,
grammar, exercises, translation, and writing practice.
Also, various other “language learning tools” have been
entering the market in recent years. There are as simple
examples as Vocabulary Stickers, but also technologically
complex augmented reality translation apps.

1.4.2 Internet and software
Software can interact with learners in ways that books
and audio cannot:
1. Some software records the learner, analyzes the pro-
nunciation, and gives feedback.[9]
2. Software can present additional exercises in areas
where a particular learner has difficulty, until the
concepts are mastered.
3. Software can pronounce words in the target lan-
guage and show their meaning by using pictures[10]
instead of oral explanations. The only language in
such software is the target language. It is compre-
hensible regardless of the learner’s native language.
Websites provide various services geared toward lan-
guage education. Some sites are designed specifically for
learning languages:
1. Some software runs on the web itself, with the ad-
vantage of avoiding downloads, and the disadvan-
tage of requiring an internet connection.
2. Some publishers use the web to distribute audio,
texts and software, for use offline.
3. Some websites offer learning activities such as
quizzes or puzzles to practice language concepts.
4. Language exchange sites connect users with com-
plementary language skills, such as a native Spanish
speaker who wants to learn English with a native En-
glish speaker who wants to learn Spanish. Language
exchange websites essentially treat knowledge of a
language as a commodity, and provide a marketlike
environment for the commodity to be exchanged.
Users typically contact each other via chat, VoIP, or
email. Language exchanges have also been viewed
as a helpful tool to aid language learning at language
schools. Language exchanges tend to benefit oral
proficiency, fluency, colloquial vocabulary acquisi-
tion, and vernacular usage, rather than formal gram-
mar or writing skills.
Many other websites are helpful for learning languages,
even though they are designed, maintained and marketed
for other purposes:
1. All countries have websites in their own languages,
which learners elsewhere can use as primary mate-
rial for study: news, fiction, videos, songs, etc. In
a study conducted by the Center for Applied Lin-
guistics, it was noted that the use of technology and
media has begun to play a heavy role in facilitating
language learning in the classroom. With the help of
the internet, students are readily exposed to foreign
media (music videos, television shows, films) and as
a result, teachers are taking heed of the internet’s in-
fluence and are searching for ways to combine this
exposure into their classroom teaching.[11]
2. Translation sites let learners find the meaning of for-
eign text or create foreign translations of text from
their native language.[12][13]
3. Speech synthesis or text to speech (TTS) sites and
software let learners hear pronunciation of arbitrary
written text, with pronunciation similar to a native
speaker.
4. Course development and learning management sys-
tems such as Moodle are used by teachers, including
language teachers.
5. Web conferencing tools can bring remote learners
together; e.g. Elluminate Live.
6. Players of computer games can practice a target lan-
guage when interacting in massively multiplayer on-
line games and virtual worlds. In 2005, the virtual
world Second Life started to be used for foreign lan-
guage tuition, sometimes with entire businesses be-
ing developed.[14][15]
In addition, Spain’s language
and cultural institute Instituto Cervantes has an “is-
land” on Second Life.
Some Internet content is free, often from government
and nonprofit sites such as BBC Online, Book2, Foreign
Service Institute, with no or minimal ads. Some is ad-
supported, such as newspapers and YouTube. Some re-
quires a payment.
1.5 Learning strategies
Language learning strategies have attracted increasing fo-
cus as a way of understanding the process of language
acquisition.
1.5.1 Listening as a way of learning
Clearly listening is used to learn, but not all language
learners employ it consciously. Listening to understand is
one level of listening but focused listening[16]
is not some-
thing that most learners employ as a strategy.
1.5.2 Reading as a way to learn
Many people read to understand but the strategy of read-
ing text to learn grammar and discourse styles can also be
employed.[17]

1.6. TEACHING STRATEGIES 5
1.5.3 Learning vocabulary
Translation and rote memorization have been the two
strategies that have been employed traditionally. There
are other strategies that also can be used such as guess-
ing, based on looking for contextual clues, spaced rep-
etition with a use of various apps, games and tools
(e.g. DuoLingo, LingoMonkey and Vocabulary Stickers).
Knowledge about how the brain works can be utilized in
creating strategies for how to remember words.[18]
1.5.4 Code switching
Main article: Code-switching
Code switching, that is, changing between languages at
some point in a sentence or utterance, is a commonly
used communication strategy among language learners
and bilinguals. While traditional methods of formal in-
struction often discourage code switching, students, es-
pecially those placed in a language immersion situation,
often use it. If viewed as a learning strategy, wherein
the student uses the target language as much as possi-
ble but reverts to their native language for any element
of an utterance that they are unable to produce in the tar-
get language (as, e.g., in Wolfgang Butzkamm's concept
of enlightened monolingualism), then it has the advan-
tages that it encourages fluency development and motiva-
tion and a sense of accomplishment by enabling the stu-
dent to discuss topics of interest to him or her early in the
learning process—before requisite vocabulary has been
memorized. It is particularly effective for students whose
native language is English, due to the high probability of
a simple English word or short phrase being understood
by the conversational partner.[19]
1.6 Teaching strategies
1.6.1 Blended learning
Main article: Blended learning
Blended learning combines face-to-face teaching
with distance education, frequently electronic, either
computer-based or web-based. It has been a major
growth point in the ELT (English Language Teaching)
industry over the last ten years.
Some people, though, use the phrase 'Blended Learning'
to refer to learning taking place while the focus is on other
activities. For example, playing a card game that requires
calling for cards may allow blended learning of numbers
(1 to 10).
1.6.2 Skills teaching
When talking about language skills, the four basic ones
are: listening, speaking, reading and writing. However,
other, more socially based skills have been identified
more recently such as summarizing, describing, narrat-
ing etc. In addition, more general learning skills such as
study skills and knowing how one learns have been ap-
plied to language classrooms.[20]
In the 1970s and 1980s, the four basic skills were gener-
ally taught in isolation in a very rigid order, such as lis-
tening before speaking. However, since then, it has been
recognized that we generally use more than one skill at a
time, leading to more integrated exercises.[20]
Speaking
is a skill that often is underrepresented in the traditional
classroom. This is due to the fact that it is considered
harder to teach and test. There are numerous texts on
teaching and testing writing but relatively few on speak-
ing.
More recent textbooks stress the importance of students
working with other students in pairs and groups, some-
times the entire class. Pair and group work give oppor-
tunities for more students to participate more actively.
However, supervision of pairs and groups is important
to make sure everyone participates as equally as possible.
Such activities also provide opportunities for peer teach-
ing, where weaker learners can find support from stronger
classmates.[20]
1.6.3 Sandwich technique
Main article: Sandwich technique
In foreign language teaching, the sandwich technique is
the oral insertion of an idiomatic translation in the mother
tongue between an unknown phrase in the learned lan-
guage and its repetition, in order to convey meaning as
rapidly and completely as possible. The mother tongue
equivalent can be given almost as an aside, with a slight
break in the flow of speech to mark it as an intruder.
When modeling a dialogue sentence for students to re-
peat, the teacher not only gives an oral mother tongue
equivalent for unknown words or phrases, but repeats the
foreign language phrase before students imitate it: L2 =>
L1 => L2. For example, a German teacher of English
might engage in the following exchange with the students:
Teacher: “Let me try - lass mich versuchen -
let me try.”
Students: “Let me try.”
1.6.4 Mother tongue mirroring
Main article: Mother tongue mirroring

Mother tongue mirroring is the adaptation of the time-
honoured technique of literal translation or word-for
word translation for pedagogical purposes. The aim is
to make foreign constructions salient and transparent to
learners and, in many cases, spare them the technical jar-
gon of grammatical analysis. It differs from literal trans-
lation and interlinear text as used in the past since it takes
the progress learners have made into account and only
focuses upon a specific structure at a time. As a didactic
device, it can only be used to the extent that it remains
intelligible to the learner, unless it is combined with a
normal idiomatic translation. This technique is seldom
referred to or used these days.
1.6.5 Back-chaining
Main article: Back-chaining
Back-chaining is a technique used in teaching oral lan-
guage skills, especially with polysyllabic or difficult
words.[21]
The teacher pronounces the last syllable, the
student repeats, and then the teacher continues, working
backwards from the end of the word to the beginning.[22]
For example, to teach the name ‘Mussorgsky' a teacher
will pronounce the last syllable: -sky, and have the stu-
dent repeat it. Then the teacher will repeat it with -sorg-
attached before: -sorg-sky, and all that remains is the first
syllable: Mus-sorg-sky.
1.7 Language education by region
Main article: Language education by region
Practices in language education may vary by region how-
ever the underlying understandings which drive it are fun-
damentally similar. Rote repetition, drilling, memorisa-
tion and grammar conjugating are used the world over.
Sometimes there are different preferences teaching meth-
ods by region. Language immersion is popular in some
European countries, but is not used very much in the
United States, in Asia or in Australia.
The languages being learned differ; in the United States,
Spanish is the most popular language to be learned,
whereas the most popular languages to be learned in
Australia are Italian and Mandarin Chinese.
1.8 Language study holidays
See also: Language school
An increasing number of people are now combining
holidays with language study in the native country. This
enables the student to experience the target culture by
meeting local people. Such a holiday often combines for-
mal lessons, cultural excursions, leisure activities, and a
homestay, perhaps with time to travel in the country af-
terwards. Language study holidays are popular across Eu-
rope (Malta & UK being the most popular because almost
everyone speaks English as a first language) and Asia
due to the ease of transportation and variety of nearby
countries. These holidays have become increasingly more
popular in Central and South America in such countries
as Guatemala, Ecuador and Peru. As a consequence of
this increasing popularity, several international language
education agencies have flourished in recent years.[23]
With the increasing prevalence of international business
transactions, it is now important to have multiple lan-
guages at one’s disposal. This is also evident in businesses
outsourcing their departments to Eastern Europe.
1.9 Minority language education
1.9.1 Minority language education policy
The principal policy arguments in favor of promoting mi-
nority language education are the need for multilingual
workforces, intellectual and cultural benefits and greater
inclusion in global information society.[24]
Access to edu-
cation in a minority language is also seen as a human right
as granted by the European Convention on Human Rights
and Fundamental Freedoms, the European Charter for
Regional or Minority Languages and the UN Human
Rights Committee.[25]
Bilingual Education has been im-
plemented in many countries including the United States,
in order to promote both the use and appreciation of
the minority language, as well as the majority language
concerned.[26]
1.9.2 Materials and e-learning for minor-
ity language education
Suitable resources for teaching and learning minority lan-
guages can be difficult to find and access, which has led to
calls for the increased development of materials for mi-
nority language teaching. The internet offers opportuni-
ties to access a wider range of texts, audios and videos.[27]
Language learning 2.0 (the use of web 2.0 tools for lan-
guage education)[28]
offers opportunities for material de-
velopment for lesser-taught languages and to bring to-
gether geographically dispersed teachers and learners.[29]
1.10 Acronyms and abbreviations
See also: English language learning and teaching for in-
formation on language teaching acronyms and abbrevia-
tions which are specific to English.

1.11. SEE ALSO 7
• ALL: Apprenticeship Language Learning
• CALL: computer-assisted language learning
• CLIL: content and language integrated learning
• CELI: Certificato di Conoscenza della Lingua Ital-
iana
• CLL: community language learning
• DELE: Diploma de Español como Lengua Extran-
jera
• DELF: diplôme d'études en langue française
• EFL: English as a foreign language
• ELL: English language learning
• ELT: English language teaching
• FLL: foreign language learning
• FLT: foreign language teaching
• HLL: heritage language learning
• L1: first language, native language, mother tongue
• L2: second language (or any additional language)
• LDL: Lernen durch Lehren (German for learning
by teaching)
• LOTE: Languages Other Than English
• SLA: second language acquisition
• TELL: technology-enhanced language learning
• TEFL: teaching English as a foreign language N.B.
This article is about travel-teaching.
• TEFLA: teaching English as a foreign language to
adults
• TESOL: teaching English to speakers of other lan-
guages
• TPR: Total Physical Response
• TPRS: Teaching Proficiency through Reading and
Storytelling
• UNIcert is a European language education system of
many universities based on the Common European
Framework of Reference for Languages.
1.11 See also
• American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Lan-
guages
• Eikaiwa school
• Error analysis (linguistics)
• Foreign language anxiety
• Foreign language writing aid
• Foreign language reading aid
• Glossary of language teaching terms and ideas
• How to learn a foreign language
• Language festival
• Lexicography
• Linguistic rights
• List of language acquisition researchers
• Monolingual learner’s dictionary
• Self access language learning centers
1.12 Notes
[1] Richards, Jack C.; Theodore S. Rodgers (2001). Ap-
proaches and Methods in Language Teaching. Cambridge
UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-00843-3.
[2] Diller, Karl Conrad (1978). The Language Teaching Con-
troversy. Rowley, Massachusetts: Newbury House. ISBN
0-912066-22-9.
[3] “Reviews of Language Self-Study Courses: Comparison,
Problems, Ratings”. Lang1234. Retrieved 17 July 2012.
[4] “Good Accents”. Lang1234. Retrieved 5 August 2012.
[5] “Shadowing Step by Step”. ForeignLanguageExper-
tise.com. Retrieved 17 July 2012.
[6] Amazing Hear-Say, by Donald Rivera, Penton Overseas
Inc., ISBN 1-56015-677-5, ISBN 1-59125-350-0, ISBN
1-59125-353-5, ISBN 1-59125-349-7, ISBN 1-59125-
351-9
[7] “Lessons for Beginners in English, mp3”. 15 August
2013. Retrieved 3 May 2014.
[8] “Workers and Guests Have Different Language Needs in
a Hotel”. 20 April 2013. Retrieved 3 May 2014.
[9] “Scoring Your Pronunciation”. Lang1234. Retrieved 5
August 2012.
[10] “Language Guide”. Language Guide. Retrieved 17 July
2012.

[11] “What We Can Learn From Foreign Language Teaching
In Other Countries”. Center for Applied Linguistics. Re-
trieved 8 May 2012.
[12] “Google Translate”. Retrieved 3 May 2014.
[13] “Bing Translator”. Microsoft. Retrieved 3 May 2014.
[14] Dorveaux, Xavier (15 July 2007). “Study and teach in
Second Life”. iT’s Magazines. Retrieved 15 July 2007.
[15] Dorveaux, Xavier (15 July 2007). “Apprendre une langue
dans un monde virtuel”. Le Monde. Retrieved 15 July
2007.
[16] Andrew Weiler: focused listening
[17] Andrew Weiler: strategy of reading
[18] Andrew Weiler: How to remember vocabulary
[19] Butzkamm, Wolfgang (1998). “Code-Switching in a
Bilingual History Lesson: The Mother Tongue as a Con-
versational Lubricant”. International Journal of Bilingual
Education and Bilingualism 1:2, pp.81-99.
[20] Holden, Susan; Mickey Rodgers (1998). English language
teaching. Mexico City: DELTI. ISBN 968-6820-12-4.
[21] “Backchaining.” Glossary. Retrieved April 4, 2009, from
http://www.usingenglish.com/glossary/backchaining.
html
[22] “Backchaining.” Teaching English. Retrieved April
4, 2009, from http://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/think/
knowledge-wiki/backchaining
[23] “Travel agents missing out on proﬁtable language travel
holidays – Sprachcaﬀe”. TravelWeek. Retrieved 2015-
03-04.
[24] Sachdev, I; McPake, J (2008). “Community Languages
in Higher Education: Towards realising the potential”.
Routes into Languages. p. 76. Retrieved 26 June 2009.
[25] de Varennes, Fernand (2004). “The right to education and
minority language”. EUMAP: EU Monitoring and Advo-
cacy Program Online Journal. Archived from the original
on 4 April 2009. Retrieved 26 June 2009.
[26] National Center for Research on Cultural Diversity and
Second Language Learning (July 1999). “Two-Way Bilin-
gual Education Programs in Practice: A National and Lo-
cal Perspective”. Center for Applied Linguistics. Re-
trieved 26 June 2009.
[27] Sachdev, I; McPake, J (2008). “Community Languages
in Higher Education: Towards realising the potential”.
Routes into Languages. pp. 61–62. Retrieved 26 June
2009.
[28] Diouri, Mourad (2009). “Language learning 2.0 in action:
web .0 tools to enhance language learning” (PDF). 4th
Plymouth e-Learning Conference 2009. Archived from
the original (PDF) on 22 November 2009. Retrieved 26
June 2009.
[29] Ikeda, A. Sho; Doty, Christopher (14 March 2009). “New
Roles for Technology in Language Maintenance and Re-
vitalization”. 1st International Conference on Language
Documentation and Conservation (ICLDC). Retrieved 26
June 2009.
1.13 References
• Pérez-Milans, M (2013). Urban schools and English
language education in late modern China: A Critical
sociolinguistic ethnography. New York & London:
Routledge.
• Gao, Xuesong (Andy). (2010).Strategic Language
Learning.Multilingual Matters:Canada, 2010
• Kim Yeong-seo (2009) “History of English educa-
tion in Korea”
• Kirkpatrick, A & Zhichang, X (2002).”Chinese
pragmatic norms and “China English”. World En-
glishes. Vol. 21, pp. 269–279.
• Kubota, K (1998) “Ideologies of English in Japan”
World Englishes Vol.17, No.3, pp. 295–306.
1.14 Further reading
• Bernhardt, E. B. (Ed.) (1992). Life in language im-
mersion classrooms. Clevedon, England: Multilin-
gual Matters, Ltd.
• Genesee, F. (1985). Second language learning
through immersion: A review of U.S. programs.
Review of Educational Research, 55(4), 541–561.
• Genesee, F. (1987). Learning Through Two Lan-
guages: Studies of Immersion and Bilingual Educa-
tion. Cambridge, Mass.: Newbury House Publish-
ers.
• Lindholm-Leary, K. (2001). Theoretical and con-
ceptual foundations for dual language education pro-
grams. In K. Lindholm-Leary, Dual language edu-
cation (pp. 39–58). Clevedon, England: Multilin-
gual Matters Ltd.
• McKay, Sharon; Schaetzel, Kirsten, Facilitating
Adult Learner Interactions to Build Listening and
Speaking Skills, CAELA Network Briefs, CAELA
and Center for Applied Linguistics
• Meunier, Fanny; Granger, Sylviane, “Phraseology
in foreign language learning and teaching”, Amster-
dam and Philadelphia : John Benjamins Publishing
Company, 2008

1.15. EXTERNAL LINKS 9
• Met, M., & Lorenz, E. (1997). Lessons from U.S.
immersion programs: Two decades of experience.
In R. Johnson & M. Swain (Eds.), Immersion ed-
ucation: International perspectives (pp. 243–264).
Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
• Swain, M. & Johnson, R. K. (1997). Immersion ed-
ucation: A category within bilingual education. In
R. K. Johnson & M. Swain (Eds.), Immersion edu-
cation: International perspectives (pp. 1–16). NY:
Cambridge University Press.
1.15 External links
• Language Education at DMOZ
• LANGWISER - Social platform for online language
learning
• CILT UK, The National Centre for Languages
• The REALIA Project
• UCLA Language Materials Project

Chapter 2
Teaching English as a foreign language
Further information: English as a second or foreign
language
Teaching English as a foreign language (TEFL) refers
to teaching English to students whose first language is not
English. TEFL can occur in the student’s own country,
either within the state school system, or privately, e.g., in
an after-hours language school or with a tutor. TEFL can
also take place in an English-speaking immigrant coun-
try, for people who have moved (either temporarily for
school or work, or permanently). TEFL teachers may be
native or non-native speakers of English. Other acronyms
for TEFL are TESL 'Teaching English as a Second Lan-
guage', TESOL 'Teaching English as a Second or Other
Language', and ESL 'English as a Second Language'.
2.1 Teaching techniques
See also: Language teaching methods
2.1.1 Reading
TEFL that uses literature aimed at children and teenagers
is rising in popularity. Youth-oriented literature offers
simpler material (“simplified readers” are produced by
major publishers), and often provides a more conversa-
tional style than literature for adults. Children’s literature
in particular sometimes provides subtle cues to pronunci-
ation, through rhyming and other word play. One method
for using these books is the multiple-pass technique. The
instructor reads the book, pausing often to explain cer-
tain words and concepts. On the second pass, the instruc-
tor reads the book completely through without stopping.
Textbooks contain a variety of literature like poetry, sto-
ries, essays, plays etc. through which certain linguistic
items are taught.
2.1.2 Communicative language teaching
Communicative language teaching (CLT) emphasizes in-
teraction as both the means and the ultimate goal of learn-
ing a language. Despite a number of criticisms,[1]
it con-
tinues to be popular, particularly in Japan, Taiwan,[2]
and Europe. In India CBSE ( Central Board of Sec-
ondary Education) has adopted this approach in its af-
filiated schools.
The task-based language learning approach to CLT has
gained ground in recent years. Proponents believe CLT
is important for developing and improving speaking, writ-
ing, listening, and reading skills, and that it prevents stu-
dents’ merely listening passively to the teacher without in-
teraction. Dogme[3]
is a similar communicative approach
that encourages teaching without published textbooks, in-
stead focusing on conversational communication among
the learners and the teacher.[4]
2.1.3 Blended learning
Blended learning is a combination of face-to-face teach-
ing and online interactions (also known as computer-
assisted language learning), achieved through a virtual
learning environment (VLE).
VLEs have been a major growth point in the English Lan-
guage Teaching (ELT) industry over the last five years.
There are two types:
• Externally hosted platforms that a school or insti-
tution exports content to (e.g., the proprietary Web
Course Tools, or the open source Moodle)
• Content-supplied, course-managed learning plat-
forms (e.g. the Macmillan English Campus)
The former provides pre-designed structures and tools,
while the latter supports course-building by the language
school—teachers can blend existing courses with games,
activities, listening exercises, and grammar reference
units contained online. This supports classroom, self-
study or remote practice (for example in an internet café).
Kendriya Vidyalaya Sangathan in India has launched a
10

2.3. PAY AND CONDITIONS WORLDWIDE 11
web portal ECTLT where learners can learn English and
other subject online and interact with their own teachers
of KVS across the country.
2.1.4 Online classroom
Advances in technology made it possible to get a TEFL
qualification online. Students can enroll into online
classes that are accredited by organizations such as Ac-
creditat. It should be noted that there is no single over-
arching accreditation body for TEFL.[5]
Study materials
are divided into modules. Students take one or multiple
tests per study module. Support is handled by tutors, who
can be reached via email. After successfully finishing the
last module the student is granted a certificate. It comes
in digital form or can be shipped to the student’s address.
Getting such a certificate can be beneficial in many ways.
The student can get a bigger paycheck or teach English in
foreign countries.
2.2 Qualifications for TEFL teach-
ers
Qualification requirements vary considerably from coun-
try to country and among employers within the same
country. In many institutions it is possible to teach with-
out a degree or teaching certificate. Some institutions will
consider it necessary to be a native speaker with an MA
TESOL. A university degree in English language and lit-
erature can also be of value, as indeed can any special-
ist degree. Other institutions consider a proof of En-
glish proficiency, a University degree and a basic teach-
ing qualification to be more than sufficient. However, the
level of academic qualification need not be the most im-
portant qualification, as many schools will be more inter-
ested in your interpersonal skills. For trainers wishing to
enter the academic field, publications can be as important
as qualifications, especially if they relate to English use in
your field. Where there is a high demand for teachers and
no statutory requirements, employers may accept other-
wise unqualified candidates. Each country is different,
and acceptance depends on demand for English teachers
and the teacher’s previous teaching and life experiences.
As a general rule, schools will tend to prefer qualifications
that involve a significant amount of assessed teaching: it
is often said that “Learning to teach without classroom
practice is like learning to drive without ever encounter-
ing traffic”.[6]
Shorter courses and online courses often
lack assessed teaching practice. Course makers have rec-
ognized this and have begun introducing combined TEFL
courses which have an element of assessed teaching.[7]
Some educational facilities are now offering two or three
well-defined certificates instead of one general certificate.
For example, Introduction to Language Teaching - 40
hours, Practice of Language Training - 30 hours, and Lit-
eracy - 30 hours.
Private language schools are likely to require at least a
certificate based on successful completion of a course
consisting of a minimum of 100 hours. Major pro-
grams like EPIK will offer a higher salary to teachers who
have completed any TEFL Course, online or otherwise,
so long as the program meets the minimum 100 hour
requirement.[8]
Internet-based TEFL courses are gener-
ally accepted worldwide, and particularly in Asia, where
the largest jobs markets exist in China, Korea, Taiwan
and Japan.[9]
In Asia there has also been a tendency to hire TEFL teach-
ers on superficial criteria, such as race (with Caucasians
preferred) on the assumption that an English teacher, or
native English speaker should be 'white', this is proven
especially true in a Thailand, a big employer of TEFL
teachers, with adverts frequently calling explicitly for
native-English speakers. Partly this is driven by com-
mercial expectations in the private sector, where parents
feel that paying extra fees for TEFL teacher should war-
rant an American or British TEFL teacher, the schools
will not risk losing students over this. Nascent demand
from China also means that quite often an inexperienced
and/or under qualified person may get favoured over oth-
ers if their nationality fits the parent-driven demand, to
the exclusion of many Filipino teachers with masters in
education.
Age/gender requirements might also be encountered. In
some countries outside Europe and America, for example
the Middle East, schools might hire men over women or
vice versa. And they might hire only teachers in a cer-
tain age range; usually between 20 and 40 years of age.
Anyone under 19 may be able to teach TEFL, but usually
only in a volunteer situation, such as a refugee camp.
2.3 Pay and conditions worldwide
As in most fields, the pay depends greatly on educa-
tion, training, experience, seniority, and expertise. As
with much expatriate work, employment conditions vary
among countries, depending on the level of economic de-
velopment and how much people want to live there. In
relatively poor countries, even a low wage may equate to a
comfortable middle class lifestyle.[10]
EFL Teachers who
wish to earn money often target countries in East Asia
such as China, South Korea and Japan where demand is
high. The Middle East is also often named as one of
the best paying areas, although usually better qualifica-
tions are needed: at least a CELTA and one or two years’
experience.[11]
There is a danger of exploitation by employers. Spain in
particular has encountered widespread criticism given the
overwhelming number of small to medium businesses (in-
cluding TEFL schools) which routinely dodge the teach-

12 CHAPTER 2. TEACHING ENGLISH AS A FOREIGN LANGUAGE
ers’ social security contributions as a means of maximis-
ing profits. The result is that most teachers are entitled
to less unemployment or sick pay than they would be en-
titled to if their salaries and contributions were declared
in accordance with the law. Similar situations increase
in countries with labor laws that may not apply to foreign
employees, or which may be unenforced. An employer
might ignore contract provisions, especially regarding
working hours, working days, and end-of-contract pay-
ments. Difficulties faced by foreign teachers regarding
language, culture, or simply limited time can make it
difficult to demand pay and conditions that their con-
tracts stipulate. Some disputes arise from cross-cultural
misunderstandings. Teachers who can't adapt to living
and working in a foreign country often leave after a few
months. It is especially difficult at this time for teach-
ers to recognize which jobs are legitimate, as many of
the leading jobs boards allow unfiltered paid posting, but
there are new sites that have risen up to help stop these
issues.[12]
2.4 TEFL region and country loca-
tions
2.4.1 Europe
Major European cities have established language schools
on-site or operated as agencies sending teachers to var-
ious locations. September is the peak recruiting month,
and many annual contracts last from October until June.
Employers prefer graduates with experience in teaching
Business English or in teaching young learners.
Instructors from the United Kingdom and Ireland, coun-
tries within the European Union, do not need any visas
to work within the EU, which reduces demand for non-
EU teachers. Immigration laws require that non-EU job
applicants submit documents from their home countries
in person after the European employer files an officially
documented job offer. If the worker has travelled to Eu-
rope to find the job, this means they must return home
and wait for some time. Following the process correctly
does not guarantee getting a visa. Many private-sector
employers do not subsidise them at all, because they are
able to hire the staff easily from the EU countries.
International schools hire some experienced and well-
qualified non-EU teachers. Education ministries, i.e.
those of France and Spain, offer opportunities for as-
sistant language instructors in public schools. Part-time
employment is usually allowed under an education visa,
but this visa also requires proper attendance at an ac-
credited EU college or university, institute, or other ed-
ucational program. Other teachers work illegally under
tourist visas, since the “don't ask, don't tell” method is
the only viable solution to avoiding impossible bureau-
cracy and eventual job rejection.
Despite claims from websites that sell courses, state
schools often do not accept brief TEFL courses as a sub-
stitute for a university degree in English education.[13]
In
Spain it is impossible to get a job with a state school un-
less you go through the process of getting your foreign
teaching degree accepted in Spain and then pass the civil
service examination (“oposiciones”).
Demand for TEFL tends to be stronger in countries which
joined the European Union recently. They also tend to
have lower costs of living. Non-EU teachers usually find
legal work there with less difficulty. The Balkan former
Yugoslav countries have seen recent growth in TEFL—
private schools have recruited Anglophone teachers there
for several years.
Very few foreign instructors work in Scandinavia, where
stricter immigration laws and a policy of relying on bilin-
gual local teachers apply.
2.4.2 Asia
Cambodia
Demand for English teachers in Cambodia has grown
over the past decade, though the country has a small pop-
ulation and is dependent on foreign aid for much of its
economic development, limiting growth.
China
Many opportunities exist within the People’s Republic of
China, including preschool, university, private schools
and institutes, companies, and tutoring. NGOs, such
as Teach For China, are an opportunity as well. The
provinces and the Ministry of Education in Beijing tightly
govern public schools, while private schools have more
freedom to set work schedules, pay, and requirements.
English teaching salaries in China are dependent on mul-
tiple factors including; Teaching hours specified in con-
tract, location, inclusions/bonuses, and public vs pri-
vate sector. It is important to note that due to high
demand, salaries have increased significantly over re-
cent years. A standard contract within the public school
system generally entails less than 20 hours of teach-
ing time, weekends off, included accommodations, flight
stipend/reimbursement for 1 year contracts, paid pub-
lic holidays, medical insurance and Z visa (working per-
mit) sponsorship. These positions offer an average base
salary of 6,000 - 7,000 RMB per month in smaller cities
and rural areas. In Beijing, Shanghai, Shenzhen, and
Guangzhou these positions now offer 10,000 RMB plus
per month due to higher living costs. The private sec-
tor is less uniform with salaries going as high as 20,000
RMB per month for DOS’s in major cities.[14]
Private po-
sitions tend to demand higher hours, may include teach-
ing in multiple locations, and often require weekend and
evening working schedules. They also are more flexible

2.4. TEFL REGION AND COUNTRY LOCATIONS 13
with housing options, often offering teachers a choice be-
tween provided accommodations, or a stipend towards
rental costs.
By law, all non-Chinese English teachers should hold a
minimum bachelor’s degree in any discipline, be at least
25 years old, have at least 2 years of working experience
(unrelated is fine).[15]
Due to demand, these rules are of-
ten overlooked, and schools often are able to obtain work
permits for teachers who do not meet the minimums, al-
though this is tightening up in the major cities.
Public schools usually pay during vacations, but not for
summer break unless the teacher renews the contract,[16]
while many private schools have shortened vacation
schedules and may pay for whatever short number of days
is allowed for vacation.
Company jobs vary, depending on the number of employ-
ees they want to train. They may employ a teacher for one
or two classes, or a complete set of 14 to 16 hours a week.
Tutoring also varies, as in some cases a whole family of
students or just one family member.
Some teachers work successfully on an independent ba-
sis with several contracts for tutoring, individual college
classes, and some company work. The majority of teach-
ers accept contracts with schools. Public school con-
tracts are fairly standard, while private schools set their
own requirements. Schools try to hire teachers from
Anglophone countries, but because of demand, others
with good English language skills can find positions.
Be aware, there are many small business which recruit
foreign teachers and find them either a formal job or
tutoring positions. Many of these small businesses are
known to rip off unsuspected foreigners. If offered posi-
tions or you feel this may be the case, a good search with
Google may produce hopefully good reports. For bigger
cities, there are large expat communities and many online
groups which can be used for researching as well. There
are also a few webpages/Facebook groups such as teach-
ingjobsaroundchina which were created by Expats listing
quality safe jobs that the Expats have experience with.
Before deciding whether to work with the recruitment
agency or school, ask their SAIC business license num-
ber for Chinese schools; local business license for foreign
agencies; check recruiter’s website and make sure it has
a clearly stated address. Remember, legitimate employer
will offer you Z visa. Never accept working on tourist or
business visa.[17]
Hong Kong
Hong Kong was once a British Crown colony, and
English-language education is taken seriously there, as
demonstrated by government-funded research.[11] Hong
Kong was handed back to the People’s Republic of China
in 1997 and became known as Hong Kong Special Ad-
ministrative Region (HKSAR).
Teaching English in Hong Kong has become quite a
business. Many English teaching institutions have since
opened. Big private names include Headstart Group Lim-
ited and English for Asia. Native English speakers may
quickly find a job teaching English, although foreign-
ers should be aware of shady companies who often pull
tricks on their employees. A qualification in Teaching
English as a Foreign Language (TEFL) has become a pre-
requisite to enter the Native English-speaking Teacher
Scheme (NET scheme), which is funded by the HKSAR
government and provides the ultimate career destination
for an English teacher. On top of attractive salary, hous-
ing is provided with all the other fringe benefits includ-
ing full holiday pay, provident fund and health insurance.
Housing or rental support is the biggest incentive to for-
eign teachers as housing cost in HK is ranked one of the
highest in the world.
Once a teacher is on the NET scheme, they can move
from school to school after completion of, normally, a
two-year contract. Therefore, a teacher has a lot of op-
portunities to land themselves an ideal position at an ideal
school, provided they have strong track record. While
many foreigners think coming to HK with a short online
TEFL qualification is sufficient, both public and private
schools are looking for TEFL qualifications listed with
the Hong Kong Council for Accreditation of Vocational
and Academic Qualifications and Hong Kong Education
Bureau There are less than a handful of them. Acquir-
ing one of those qualifications gives a foreigner a definite
advantage to securing a preferred teaching position at a
formal school, whether private or public, kindergarten,
primary or secondary. When selecting NET, schools will
not normally consider learning centre experience due to
the differences in class size, continuity of student group,
level of classroom management skills and sophistication
in teaching pedagogy required between schools and cen-
tres.
Japan
In Japan, the JET Programme employs assistant language
teachers and teaching assistants to work in Japanese high
schools and elementary schools. Other teachers work
in eikaiwa (private language schools). The largest of
these chains are Aeon and ECC. The sector is not well
regulated. Nova, one of the largest chains with over
900 branches, collapsed in October 2007, leaving thou-
sands of foreign teachers without income or, for some, a
place to live. Other teachers work in universities. Agen-
cies are increasingly used to send English speakers into
kindergartens, primary schools, and private companies
whose employees need to improve their Business English.
Agencies, known in Japan as haken, or dispatch compa-
nies, have recently been competing among themselves to
get contracts from various Boards of Education for El-
ementary, Junior and Senior High Schools, and wages
have decreased steadily. JALT (the Japan Association for

Language Teaching) is the largest NPO (not-for-profit or-
ganization) for language teachers (mainly native English
speakers), with nearly 3,000 members.[18]
Laos
English language has been increasingly important in edu-
cation, international trade and cooperation in Laos since
the 1990s. The government started to promote foreign
direct investment, and the introduction of Laos as an ob-
server at ASEAN in 1992 also increased the necessity
of English. Laos was considered as a full member of
ASEAN in 1997. From 1992-97, the government had
to improve its fluency in English.
More recently, high-ranking officials, business people,
and shareholders have started to work at their English.
This trend looks set to increase as English is due to be
included and taught in the field of education too.
Middle East and North Africa
Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates, and other
wealthy Persian Gulf states are the main locations for in-
structors to work in this region. Many positions provide
a higher salary with more benefits but tend to require
more qualifications and experience. Private academies
and university programs are the main venues of instruc-
tion. Some public primary and secondary schools, such
as those in Abu Dhabi, have begun to recruit foreign En-
glish instructors.
Other Middle Eastern and North African countries of-
fer more modestly-paid positions. Amideast and the
British Council operate in a number of countries pro-
viding teaching opportunities in their English language
courses.
English language is also taught in Iran as the second lan-
guage since 6th grade.
Mongolia
The Peace Corps has 136 volunteers in Mongolia, many
of whom are English teachers[19]
mostly teaching in the
vast rural areas, where the population density is low.
In Ulaanbaatar, a modest number of professional NETs
teach at private institutes, universities, and some schools.
In addition to foreign instructors from the major English-
speaking countries, there are Filipinos teaching in Mon-
golian schools, institutes and large industrial or mining
companies.
South Korea
There is great demand for native English speakers willing
to teach in South Korea, though it is dropping. In 2013,
the number of native English speakers teaching in pub-
lic schools dropped 7.7% in one year to 7,011.[20]
Most
of the nation’s provinces are removing foreign English
teachers from their middle and high schools. As with
Japan, Korea is also nurturing a government-run program
for teacher placement called English Program in Korea
(EPIK). EPIK reported that it recruited 6,831 foreign
teachers to work in Korean public schools. There are a
number of associations for English teachers in Korea, the
largest one with a significant number of native speakers
is KOTESOL.
Institutions commonly provide round-trip airfare and a
rent-free apartment for a one-year contract. Note that
since March 15, 2008, visa rules have changed. Prospec-
tive teachers must now undergo a medical examination
and a criminal background check, produce an original
degree certificate, and provide sealed transcripts. On ar-
riving in South Korea, teachers must undergo a further
medical check before they receive an ARC (Alien Regis-
tration Card) card.
Korean labor law provides all workers with a severance
pay equivalent to one month’s salary is paid at the end of
a contract. Most job contracts are for 1 year and include
entrance and exit plane tickets. Citizens of the USA,
Canada and Australia[21]
also receive back their pension
contributions and their employers’ part of the pension
contributions on leaving the country. The average start-
ing pay for those with no previous teaching experience
and no degree in the English language is usually between
USD $1,800 to USD $2,200.[22]
There are four main places to work in South Ko-
rea: universities, private schools, public schools (EPIK),
and private language academies (known in South Ko-
rea as hagwons). Private language academies (in 2005
there were over thirty thousand such academies teach-
ing English[23]
), the most common teaching location in
Korea, can be for classes of school children, housewives,
university students (often at the university itself), or busi-
nesspeople. There are numerous, usually small indepen-
dent hagwons but also numerous large chains.
Taiwan
In Taiwan, most teachers work in cram schools, known
locally as bushibans or buxibans. Some are part of
chains, like Hess and Kojen. Others operate indepen-
dently. Such schools pay around US$2,000 per month.
End-of-contract bonuses equivalent to an extra month’s
pay are not mandated by law as in South Korea, and are
uncommon in Taiwan. Also, under current law it is illegal
for foreigners to teach English in pre-schools or kinder-
gartens, though it is almost always overlooked by both the
schools and the government, thereby making the practice
common and accepted. To teach English and live in Tai-
wan, you must be a holder of an Alien Resident Card
(ARC) which is supplied to passport holders of native

2.5. SEE ALSO 15
English speaking countries, by hiring schools ARC can-
didates must hold a bachelor’s degree from a four-year
university, or an accredited.
Thailand
Thailand has a great demand for native English speakers,
and has a ready-made workforce in the form of travel-
ers and expatriates attracted by the local lifestyle despite
relatively low salaries. Teachers can expect to earn a min-
imum starting salary of around 25,000 Baht.[24]
Because
Thailand prohibits foreigners from most non-skilled and
skilled occupations, a high percentage of foreign residents
teach English for a living, and are able to stay in the coun-
try. There is also a growing demand for Filipino English
teachers, as they are often hired for about half the salary
of a native speaker. Qualifications for EFL teachers in
Thailand have become stricter in the last couple of years,
with most schools now requiring a bachelor’s degree plus
a 120-hour TEFL course . It is possible to find work with-
out a degree in Thailand. However, as a degree makes
getting a work permit far easier, to work without a degree
is often to work illegally, opening teachers up to exploita-
tion by employers.[25]
2.4.3 Americas
There has been significant growth in TEFL within the
wealthier non-Anglophone countries of North, Central,
and South America as well as the Caribbean. In par-
ticular, many teachers work in Argentina, Brazil, Chile,
Costa Rica, Colombia, Ecuador, Mexico, Peru, Paraguay,
Uruguay and Venezuela. Chile has even made it a na-
tional goal to become a bilingual nation within the com-
ing years. As proof of its commitment to this goal the
Chilean Ministry of Education sponsors English Opens
Doors, a program that recruits English speakers to work
in Chilean Public High Schools.
Costa Rica
Costa Rica is a popular choice among EFL teachers in
light of the high market demand for English instructors,
the stable economic and political atmosphere, and the vi-
brant culture. Teaching positions are available through
public and private schools, language schools, universi-
ties and colleges, and through private tutoring. Language
schools typically hire all year round, and teachers of Busi-
ness English are also in high demand. There are quality
Costa Rica TEFL training courses that offer certification
as well as job placement assistance following completion
of a course.
CEC Classroom building on the National Polytechnic School cam-
pus in Quito, Ecuador.
Ecuador
There is a TEFL course at CEC-EPN, Continuing Edu-
cation Center, in English National Polytechnic School in
Quito, Ecuador. (In Spanish, Centro de Educación Con-
tinua - Escuela Politécnica Nacional).
CEC-EPN in Quito, Ecuador
•
•
•
•
2.4.4 Africa
TEFL in Africa has historically been linked to aid pro-
grams such as the US Peace Corps or the multinational
Voluntary Service Overseas organization, as well as other
aid programs. Most African countries employ bilingual
local teachers. Poverty and instability in some African
countries has made it difficult to attract foreign teachers.
There has been increasing government investment in ed-
ucation and a growing private sector.
2.4.5 India
Oxford TEFL Kerala {Cochin International Language
Academy (CILA)} is the leading TEFL/ TESOL course
provider in India. Additional English instruction takes
place at levels of public and private schools.
2.5 See also
• Applied linguistics

• English language learning and teaching
• Language education
• The Learning English Video Project
• List of countries by English-speaking population
• Second language acquisition
• Sociolinguistics
• Trinity College London ESOL
• Glossary of language teaching terms and ideas
• English Opens Doors
• Test of English as a Foreign Language known as
TOEFL
• EF Standard English Test, open-access standardized
English assessment tools
• Teaching English as a second language
• English as a second or foreign language
2.6 References
[1] Van Hattum, Ton (2006). “Communicative Approach
Rethought”. tonvanhattum.com.br.
[2] “The Trend and Challenge for Teaching EFL at Taiwanese
Universities”. sagepub.com.
[3] Meddings, L and Thornbury, S (2009) Teaching
Unplugged: Dogme in English Language Teaching.
Peaslake: Delta.
[4] Luke, Meddings (2004-03-26). “Throw away your text-
books”. The Guardian (London). Retrieved 2009-06-22.
[5] “A Guide to TEFL Accreditation”. The Guardian. Re-
trieved 23 April 2014.
[6] " World TEFL Info, World TEFL Info
[7] “Distance learning courses can also be a good introduc-
tion, but feedback on your teaching practice is important
and most distance courses will not include this, and there-
fore will not be acceptable to many teaching institutes.”
The British Council
[8] http://www.epik.go.kr/contents.do?contentsNo=49&
menuNo=278
[9] “Will this TEFL course be accepted or recognized?". es-
linsider.com.
[10] “TEFL Pay”. Cactus TEFL. Retrieved 2010-05-19. There
does however seem to be a basic TEFL LAW, which states
that if you're on a full-time contract of 24-26 teaching
hours per week, you will have enough money to pay rent
in a modest, possibly shared apartment, pay for food, get
out and about to explore at weekends, have the odd beer
or glass of wine of an evening, and, over the period of
your contract, get some money put aside for flights home at
Christmas. Generally speaking, you tend to live fairly ba-
sically, and what you earn is not usually enough to support
partners, family back home or pay back debts or mortgage
instalments. In many ways, TEFL can be a bit of a return
to your student days, where there is less emphasis on ma-
terial 'stuff' and more in being absorbed into the culture
of the experience.
[11] “TEFL Salary Map”. TEFLicious. Retrieved 2014-04-21.
Hover over a country to see average monthly pay and re-
quired qualifications.
[12] "- ESL Ready”. eslready.com.
[13] Teacher Training (TEFL) Frauds, Frank Adamo
[14] “Disney English Language Learning Director in China”.
GaijinPot Jobs.
[15] “TEFL - China TEFL Jobs”. mytefl.net.
[16] Dr. Gregory Mavrides (2008). “Travel and Medical Ben-
efits for Foreign Teachers in China”. Middle Kingdom
Life.
[17] “Finding A Safe And Honest Employer or School In
China”. eTeachersHub.
[18] “About JALT”. jalt.org.
[19] Peace Corps. “Mongolia | Asia | Peace Corps”.
Peacecorps.gov. Retrieved 2013-08-02.
[20] . “Native English teacher head count continues decline-
The Korea Herald”. Nwww.koreaherald.com. Retrieved
2013-08-02.
[21] Australian Embassy, Republic of Korea: Australia-Korea
Social Security Agreement
[22] http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED511524.pdf
[23] publications.gc.ca (PDF). p. 6 http://publications.gc.
ca/collections/collection_2007/ic/Iu44-41-2007E.pdf.
Missing or empty |title= (help)
[24] “Teach English in Thailand”, With a degree, a respected
TEFL qualification and all the relevant paperwork you can
expect to earn a starting salary of around 25,000 Baht
(US$800) a month but that could be as high as 60,000
(US$1850) depending on your experience and the loca-
tion of the school.
[25] “Government vs. Private Language Schools in Thailand”
Some TEFL certificate providers have started offering res-
idential courses in Thailand as a way of ensuring their stu-
dents the necessary government-required experience and
cultural awareness.
2.7 Further reading
• Paul Z. Jambor “Protectionist Measures in Postsec-
ondary Ontario (Canada) TESL”, U.S. Department
of Education: Educational Resources Information
Center, 2012

2.8. EXTERNAL LINKS 17
• Brandt, C. (2006). Success on your certiﬁcate
course in English language teaching: A guide to be-
coming a teacher in ELT/TESOL. London: Sage.
ISBN 1-4129-2059-0, ISBN 978-1-4129-2059-9
• Paul Z. Jambor “The 'Foreign English Teacher' A
Necessary 'Danger' in South Korea”, United States
of America; Department of Education - Education
Resources Information Center, 2010
• Teaching English Abroad, Susan Griﬃth, Vacation
Work Press, Oxford. Many editions. ISBN 1-
85458-352-2, ISBN 978-1-85458-352-9
• Teach English in Italy, Frank Adamo, Lulu.com,
Second Edition. ISBN 978-1-4461-9318-1
• English Teacher X Guide to Teaching English
Abroad, English Teacher X, Amazon.com and
Smashwords.com, 2010 ASIN: B004SOYD70
ISBN 1-4663-3005-8 ISBN 978-1466330054
2.8 External links
• Teaching English article on Wikivoyage

Chapter 3
Direct method (education)
The direct method of teaching, which is sometimes
called the natural method, and is often (but not exclu-
sively) used in teaching foreign languages, refrains from
using the learners’ native language and uses only the target
language. It was established in Germany and France
around 1900 and contrasts with the Grammar translation
method and other traditional approaches, as well as with
C.J.Dodson’s bilingual method. It was adopted by key in-
ternational language schools such as Berlitz and Inlingua
in the 1970s and many of the language departments of the
Foreign Service Institute of the U.S. State Department in
2012.[1]
In general, teaching focuses on the development of oral
skills.[2]
Characteristic features of the direct method are:
• teaching concepts and vocabulary through pan-
tomiming, real-life objects and other visual mate-
rials
• teaching grammar by using an inductive approach
(i.e. having learners find out rules through the pre-
sentation of adequate linguistic forms in the target
language)
• centrality of spoken language (including a native-
like pronunciation)
• focus on question-answer patterns
3.1 Definition
Direct method is a method of teaching language di-
rectly establishing a direct or immediate association be-
tween experience and expression,between the English
word,phrase or idiom and its meaning through demon-
stration, dramatization without the use of the mother
tongue[3]
3.2 Aims
1. Direct method aims to build a direct relation be-
tween experience and language, word and idea,
thought and expression
2. This method intends that students learn how to com-
municate in the target language
3. This method is based on the assumption that the
learner should experience the new language in the
same way as his/her
experienced his/her mother tongue[4]
3.3 Essentials of direct method
1. No translation
2. Concepts are taught by means of objects or by nat-
ural contexts
3. Oral training helps in reading and writing
4. Grammar are taught indirectly[5]
3.4 Techniques
1. Question answer exercise- the teacher ask questions
of any type and the student answer
2. Dictation-the teacher chooses a grade appropriate
passage and reads it aloud
3. Reading aloud - the students take turn reading sec-
tions of a passage, play or a dialogue aloud
4. Student self - correction- when a student makes
a mistake the teacher will offer him/her a second
chance by giving a choice
5. Conversion practice- the students are given an op-
portunity to ask their own questions to the other stu-
dents or to the teacher, because, there is a teacher-
learner interaction, as well as learner-learner inter-
action
6. Paragraph writing- the students are asked to write a
passage in their own words[6]
18

3.7. DEMERITS OF DIRECT METHOD 19
3.5 Nature of direct method
1. Direct method is also known as natural method, it is
developed as a reaction to the translation and gram-
mar method and it take you into the domain of En-
glish in most natural manner
2. The main objective is to impart perfect command
of foreign language, it is the crux of the problem
make them think in English in the same manner as
in learning of his mother-tongue, in the most natural
way
3. it was found that there was very little pupil-
participation and the teaching tended to be long,dull
and drab nomologue by the teacher[7]
3.6 Merits of direct method
1. Facilitates understanding of language- it helps to
understanding of language becomes easier due to
the inhibition of the linguistic interferences of the
mother tongue . it establishes the direct bond and
helps in understanding directly what he hears and
reads
2. Improves fluency of the speech- if the student gets
fluency of speech it results in easy writing and it
tends to improve expression incomes speech and ex-
pression in writing, it is the quickest way of learning
and expanding vocabulary
3. Aids reading- the reading of language becomes easy
and pleasant and helps in promoting a habit of crit-
ical study
4. Improves to develop language sense
5. This method is based on full of activity so,it is very
interesting, exciting
6. It emphasize on the target language,so it helps the
pupil to express their thoughts and feelings directly
by the English without the usage of mother tongue
7. LSRW are developed
8. It helps in bringing the words of the passive vocab-
ulary into active vocabulary
9. It helps in proceeding the English language from
particular to general,it bridges the gap between the
practice and the theory
10. It makes use of audio-visual aids and also facilates
reading and writing
11. This method facilities alertness and participation of
students[8][9]
3.7 Demerits of Direct method
1. This method ignores systematic written work and
reading activities
2. This method may not hold well in higher classes
where the translation method is found suitable
3. Limited vocabulary- it restricts the scope of vocab-
ulary as all words cannot be directly associated with
their meanings
4. Lacked application- the method aims at active com-
mand of a language, only the clever child can profit
by this method
5. Lack of skilled teachers- most of the teachers in In-
dian schools themselves have poor command of En-
glish. The time allotted to English in the school also
is limited
6. This method does not suit or satisfy the needs of in-
dividual students in large classes
7. This method is inconvenient in huge class
8. It ignores reading and writing aspects of language
learning
9. Grammar are not thought systematically
10. It is time consuming in creating real life situations
11. This method finds difficulty for slow learnersy.[10][11]
3.8 Principles
1. Classroom instructions are conducted exclusively in
the target language.
2. Only everyday vocabulary and sentences are taught
during the initial phase; grammar, reading and writ-
ing are introduced in intermediate phase.
3. Oral communication skills are built up in a carefully
graded progression organized around question-and-
answer exchanges between teachers and students in
small, intensive classes.
4. Grammar is taught inductively.
5. New teaching points are introduced orally.
6. Concrete vocabulary is taught through demonstra-
tion, objects, and pictures; abstract vocabulary is
taught by association of ideas.
7. Both speech and listening comprehensions are
taught.
8. Correct pronunciation and grammar are empha-
sized.

20 CHAPTER 3. DIRECT METHOD (EDUCATION)
9. Student should be speaking approximately 80% of
the time during the lesson.
10. Students are taught from inception to ask questions
as well as answer them.
3.9 Pedagogy
The key Aspects of this method are:
I. Introduction of new word, number, alphabet character,
sentence or concept (referred to as an Element) :
• SHOW...Point to Visual Aid or Gestures (for
verbs), to ensure student clearly understands
what is being taught.
• SAY...Teacher verbally introduces Element,
with care and enunciation.
• TRY...Student makes various attempts to
pronounce new Element.
• MOLD...Teacher corrects student if neces-
sary, pointing to mouth to show proper shaping
of lips, tongue and relationship to teeth.
• REPEAT...Student repeats each Element 5-
20 times.
NOTE: Teacher should be aware of “high frequency
words and verbs” and prioritize teaching for this. (i.e.
Teach key verbs such as “To Go” and “To Be” before un-
usual verbs like “To Trim” or “To Sail"; likewise, teach
Apple and Orange before Prune and Cranberry.)
II. Syntax, the correct location of new Element in sen-
tence:
• SAY & REPEAT...Teacher states a phrase
or sentence to student; Student repeats such 5-
20 times.
• ASK & REPLY IN NEGATIVE...Teacher
uses Element in negative situations (e.g. “Are
you the President of the United States?" or
“Are you the teacher?"); Students says “No”.
If more advanced, may use the negative with
“Not”.
• INTERROGATIVES Teacher provides in-
tuitive examples using 5 “w"s (Who, What,
Where, Why, When) or How”. Use random
variations to practice.
• PRONOUNS WITH VERBS Using visu-
als (such as photos or illustrations) or gestures,
Teacher covers all pronouns. Use many ran-
dom variations such as “Is Ana a woman?" or
“Are they from France?" to practice.
• USE AND QUESTIONS...Student must
choose and utilize the correct Element, as well
as posing appropriate questions as Teacher did.
III. Progress, from new Element to new Element (within
same lesson):
A. Random Sequencing:
1. After new Element (X) is taught and learned,
go to next Element (Y).
2. After next Element (Y) is taught and learned,
return to practice with Element (X).
3. After these two are alternated (X-Y; Y-X;
Y-Y, etc), go to 3rd Element (Z).
4. Go back to 1 and 2, mix in 3, practice (X-Y-
Z; Z-Y-X; Y-Y-Z, etc.) and continue building
up to appropriate number of Elements (may be
as many as 20 per lesson, depending on student,
see B.1), practicing all possible combinations
and repeating 5-20 times each combination.
B. Student-Led Limits:
1. Observe student carefully, to know when
mental “saturation” point is reached, indicat-
ing student should not be taught more Elements
until another time.
2. At this point, stop imparting new informa-
tion, and simply do Review as follows:
C. Review: Keep random, arbitrary sequenc-
ing. If appropriate, use visuals, pointing
quickly to each. Employ different examples of
Element that are easy to understand, changing
country/city names, people names, and words
student already knows. Keep a list of everything
taught, so proper testing may be done.
D. Observation and Notation: Teacher
should maintain a student list of words/phrases
that are most difficult for that student. The list
is called “Special Attention List”
IV. Progress, from Lesson to Lesson:
• LESSON REVIEW The first few minutes
of each lesson are to review prior lesson(s).
• GLOBAL REVIEW Transition from Les-
son Review to a comprehensive review, which
should always include items from the Special
Attention List.
V. Advanced Concepts:
• Intermediate and Advanced Students may
skip some Element introduction as appropriate;
become aware of student’s language abilities,
so they are not frustrated by too much review.
If Student immediately shows recognition and
knowledge, move to next Element.
• Non-Standard Alphabets: Teaching Stu-
dent to recognize letters/characters and read-
ing words should employ same steps as in above

3.12. SEE ALSO 21
Aspect I. and alphabet variations may be taught
using Aspect III. Writing characters and words
should initially be done manually, either on pa-
per or whiteboard.
• Country Accents: Any student at interme-
diate stages or higher should be made aware of
subtle variations in pronunciation, which de-
pend on geography within a country or from
country to country.
It should be noted that an integral aspect of the Direct
Method is varying the setting of teaching; instructors try
different scenarios using the same Element. This makes
the lessons more “real world,” and it allows for some
confusing distractions to the student and employ organic
variables common in the culture and locale of language
use.[12]
3.10 Conclusion
Direct method of teaching English can be applied in the
lower classes where less explanatory devise in teaching
English is required, the method is good at laying a firm
basis for acquiring linguistic habit .however, the direct
method of teaching can create problems as sometimes
the students fail to follow what is being taught prop-
erly,however many teachers did modify the direct method
to meet practical requirements of own schools, imple-
mented main principles, teaching through oral practice
and banning all translation into target language. obvi-
ously compromise was needed. direct method did pave
the way for more communicative, oral based approach,
and as such represented an important step forward in the
history of language teaching.[13]
3.11 Historical context
The direct method was an answer to the dissatisfac-
tion with the older grammar translation method, which
teaches students grammar and vocabulary through direct
translations and thus focuses on the written language.
There was an attempt to set up conditions that imitate
mother tongue acquisition, which is why the beginnings
of these attempts were called the natural method. At the
turn of the 18th and 19th centuries, Sauveur and Franke
proposed that language teaching should be undertaken
within the target-language system, which was the first
stimulus for the rise of the direct method.[14]
The audio-lingual method was developed in an attempt to
address some of the perceived weaknesses of the direct
method.
3.12 See also
• Language education
• Second language acquisition
3.13 Notes
[1] See http://inlingua.com
[2] http://www.inlingua-beograd.com/learn_serbian.php?
lang=en&web_page_ls=About%20school
[3] naik, hemavathi .s. content cum methodlogy of teaching
english. sapna book house in2013. p. 68.
[4] muthuja, babu. teaching of english (2009 ed.). centrum
press. p. 87.
[5] teaching of enghlish (2005 ed.). aph publishing corpora-
tion. p. 66. |first1= missing |last1= in Authors list (help)
press. p. 87.
[7] teaching of enghlish (2005 ed.). aph publishing corpora-
tion. p. 66. |first1= missing |last1= in Authors list (help)
press. p. 87.
press. p. 87.
[12] Société internationale des écoles Inlingua (1999), Inlingua
Teacher Manual (3rd Edition), Berne Switzerland.
press. p. 87.
[14] Chomsky, N. (1975). Reflections on Language. New
York: Pantheon Books.
3.14 References
• Bussmann, Hadumod (1996), Routledge Dictionary
of Language and Linguistics, London/New York,
s.v. direct method
• Krause, C. A. (1916), The Direct Method in Modern
Languages, New York.
• Societe Internationale des Ecoles Inlingua (1973),
Inlingua English First Book, Berne Switzerland.
• Societe Internationale des Ecoles Inlingua (1999),
Inlingua Teacher Manual (3rd Edition), Berne
Switzerland.

Chapter 4
Grammar-translation method
The grammar translation method is a method of
teaching foreign languages derived from the classical
(sometimes called traditional) method of teaching Greek
and Latin. In grammar-translation classes, students
learn grammatical rules and then apply those rules by
translating sentences between the target language and the
native language. Advanced students may be required to
translate whole texts word-for-word. The method has two
main goals: to enable students to read and translate litera-
ture written in the target language, and to further students’
general intellectual development.
4.1 History and philosophy
The grammar-translation method originated from the
practice of teaching Latin. In the early 1500s, Latin
was the most widely-studied foreign language due to
its prominence in government, academia, and business.
However, during the course of the century the use of
Latin dwindled, and it was gradually replaced by English,
French, and Italian. After the decline of Latin, the pur-
pose of learning it in schools changed. Whereas previ-
ously students had learned Latin for the purpose of com-
munication, it came to be learned as a purely academic
subject.
Throughout Europe in the 18th and 19th centuries, the
education system was formed primarily around a con-
cept called faculty psychology. This theory dictated that
the body and mind were separate and the mind consisted
of three parts: the will, emotion, and intellect. It was
believed that the intellect could be sharpened enough to
eventually control the will and emotions. The way to do
this was through learning classical literature of the Greeks
and Romans, as well as mathematics. Additionally, an
adult with such an education was considered mentally pre-
pared for the world and its challenges.
At ﬁrst it was believed that teaching modern languages
was not useful for the development of mental discipline
and thus they were left out of the curriculum. When
modern languages did begin to appear in school curric-
ula in the 19th century, teachers taught them with the
same grammar-translation method as was used for clas-
sical Latin and Greek.[1]
As a result, textbooks were es-
sentially copied for the modern language classroom. In
the United States of America, the basic foundations of
this method were used in most high school and college
foreign language classrooms.
4.2 Principles and goals
There are two main goals to grammar-translation classes.
One is to develop students’ reading ability to a level
where they can read literature in the target language. [2]
The other is to develop students’ general mental disci-
pline. The users of foreign language wanted simply to
note things of their interest in the literature of foreign
languages. Therefore, this method focuses on reading
and writing and has developed techniques which facili-
tate more or less the learning of reading and writing only.
As a result, speaking and listening are overlooked.
4.3 Method
Grammar-translation classes are usually conducted in the
students’ native language. Grammar rules are learned
deductively; students learn grammar rules by rote, and
then practice the rules by doing grammar drills and trans-
lating sentences to and from the target language. More
attention is paid to the form of the sentences being trans-
lated than to their content. When students reach more
advanced levels of achievement, they may translate en-
tire texts from the target language. Tests often consist of
the translation of classical texts.
There is not usually any listening or speaking practice,
and very little attention is placed on pronunciation or any
communicative aspects of the language. The skill exer-
cised is reading, and then only in the context of transla-
tion.
4.4 Materials
The mainstay of classroom materials for the grammar-
translation method is the textbook. Textbooks in the
22

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