1. STRESS Margaux Loesche
SLIDE 1- Stress By Margaux Loesche .
Stressors : demands made by the internal or external environment that upsets balance, thus affecting
physical and psychological well-being and requiring action to restore balance. Can be defined as
any event, real or imagined, cognitive, environment or biology that leads to stress.
Coping :constantly changing cognitive and behavioral efforts to manage specific external and/or internal
demands that are appraised as taxing"[1] or "exceeding the resources of the person".[2]
Coping is thus expending conscious effort to solve personal and interpersonal problems, and seeking to master,
minimize or tolerate stress or conflict.
SLIDE 2- Behavior rational and predictable, researchers found out that when exposed to stress →
heart beats faster, body temperatures increases, glucose is sent to the muscles, you start eating
excessively and the adrenal gland releases stress hormones : adrenalin. Also the physiological
changes of the sympathetic nervous system prepare the individual to either escape or confront the
source of stress -fight or flight-
SLIDE 3- HANS SELYE → Endocrinologist (Endocrinology: The study of hormones, their
receptors, the intracellular signaling pathways they invoke, and the diseases and conditions
associated with them.) Famous for his work on stress : GAS General Adaptation Syndrome.
Aim:
To find a new hormone
Method :
Experiments on rats : injected them with ovarian extract. His hope was to uncover changes in the
organism that could not be caused by any known sex hormone.
Findings:
The rats developed symptoms from the extract injections → including enlargement of the adrenal
cortex (Situated along the perimeter of the adrenal gland, the adrenal cortex mediates the stress
response through the production of mineralocorticoids andglucocorticoids,
including aldosterone and cortisol respectively. It is also a secondary site of androgen synthesis.),
atrophy of the thymus, spleen, and lymph nodes and deep bleeding ulcers in the lining of the
stomach and duoderm (all of which could be decreased or increased in severity by adjusting the
amount of extract injected)
Limitations : Humans are not rats can't generalize this study to humans
RICHARD LAZARUS Observations → Argued that, for a situation to be stressful, it must be
considered or appraised as such by the person concerned. Therefore there is not a clear cognitive
component to stress because any event or phenomenon, real or imagined, can be discovered or
perceived as stressful. The Model consists of : a primary appraisal, secondary appraisal and stress
response .
SLIDE 4- PET SCANS- PET = Positron Emission Tomography . Stress test, they first inject the
individual with a drug used to exercise or work your heart, then they inject radioactive tracer that
attach to muscle cells to be able to see them on the scan . 3 to 4 hours later same but without drug.
SLIDE 5- An important issue is that PET involves administering patients with ionising radiationg,
which in high dose become dangerous. If PET is being used for research purposes it cannot be used
with children or women of child bearing age. There are also issues with deciding what the results of
a PET scan mean. For example, imaging techniques have been used by some to provide 'evidence'
for things like psychopathic personality disorder.

2. SLIDE 6-The term psychoneuroimmunology is used to describe the interaction between the
psychological and the physiological systems. Most psychologists agree stress has a negative
outcome on physical health. Powell et al. ( 1967) Found that children who had been exposed to
significant stress in their home life ( eg marital discord, alcoholism and child abuse), had impaired
growth due to a lowering of the production of growth hormone in the pituitary gland. Stone et al.
( 1987) correlated negative life experiences with respiratory illness while also arguing positive life
experiences decline in the run up to serious illness. He also report a correlation between a change in
mood and a change in antibody concentration in bodily fluids- suggesting good mood contribute to
a healthy immune system.
SLIDE 7-
SLIDE 8- Hans Selye : General Adaptation syndrome, stress syndrome. It is what he calls the
process under which the body confronts “stress”. In the gas there are three stages of coping first
there is an “alarm reaction” in which the body prepares itself for “fight or flight” . The second stage
is called “the resistance stage” and involves coping, along with attempts to reverse the effects of the
“alarm reaction”. The third stage is called the “exhaustion” this is reached after the individual has
been repeatedly exposed to stressors and can no longer cope anymore !
Lazarus – Model of Stress Primary appraisal : determining whether the stressor is positive or
negative . Then Secondary Appraisal : What are your options ?, prior to how to deal with the
stressor. And Stress Response : coping and problem focused coping .
SLIDE 9- ADRENALINE – What is it ? Adrenaline is a hormone produced by the adrenal gland in
the body of many animals. When it is produced in the body it stimulates the heart-rate,
contracts blood vessels, dilates air passages, and has a number of more minor effects. Adrenaline is
naturally produced in high-stress or physically exhilarating situations.
The term "fight or flight" is often used to characterize the circumstances under whichadrenaline is
released into the body. It is an early evolutionary adaptation to allow better coping with dangerous
and unexpected situations. With dilated air passages, for example, the body is able to get
more oxygen into the lungs in a timely manner, increasing physical performance for short bursts of
time.
The adrenal glands may be found directly above the kidneys in the human body, and are roughly 3
inches (7.62 cm) in length. Norepinephrine (or noradrenaline) is also released from the adrenal
glands when they are active. In a healthily functioning human, approximately 80% of the released
substance is adrenaline, and the other 20% is norepinephrine.
SLIDE 10-
Glutamine, is a conditionally essential amino acid.
It is used to make neurotransmitters which keep you feeling calm, focused and in control, but
during periods of stress the body cannot make its own supply of glutamine and needs an outside
source, diet or otherwise.
In handling daily stress the brain uses feel good transmitters called endorphins
(opiods). When large amounts are needed to handle stress, the RATIO of many
of the other transmitters, one to another, becomes upset creating a chemical
imbalance. We begin to FEEL stress more acutely -- a sense of urgency and
anxiety creates more stress. Harmful chemicals are released in our bodies that
do damage, causing more stress. We call this vicious cycle the "stress cycle."
Emotional fatigue can result, and be experienced and felt as depression.

3. The body responds to EMOTIONAL STRESS exactly as it responds to
PHYSICAL DANGER. Without our being aware of it, usually not feeling it at
all, our bodies are continuously reacting to emotions such as frustration,
irritation, resentment, hurt, grief and anxiety -- responding to these MENTAL
and EMOTIONAL STRUGGLES with a primitive physiological "fight or
flight" response designed to prepare our bodies to face immediate danger. In
modern day life we don't fight, we don't flee. Instead, the high-energy chemicals
produced in many everyday situations boil inside of us, potentially taking years
off our lives.
Almost all the body functions and organs react to stress.
Your body responds to stress with a series of physiological changes that include
increased secretion of adrenaline, elevation of blood pressure, acceleration of the
heartbeat, and greater tension in the muscles. Digestion slows or stops. Within
24 to 48 hours after a stress-anxiety-anger reaction, major physical
symptoms can and do occur.
Stress creates an excellent breeding ground for illness.
Increased adrenaline production causes the body to step up its metabolism of
proteins, fats and carbohydrates to quickly produce energy for the body to use.
The pituitary gland increases its production of andrenocorticotropic hormone
(ACTH), which in turn stimulates the release of the hormones cortisone and
cortisol. These have the effect of inhibiting the functioning of disease fighting
white blood cells and suppressing the immune system response. This complex of
physical changes known as the "fight or flight" response is also the reason that
stress can lead to nutritional deficiencies.
Long-Term Stress is Particularly Dangerous.
Continual stress eventually wears out the body. Consider the fact that only a few
of the veterans, Russian or German, who fought during the siege of Stalingrad
lived to age 50. Few lived to 45, and most died soon after their 40th birthdays.
All of these individuals suffered extreme stress 24 hours a day for more than six
months.
With Amino Acids, Vitamins, and Minerals, Opiods
(Endorphin) Levels Are Maintained.
High-energy chemicals are not pumped into your body to do damage. You
remain relaxed, at peace, and maintain a sense of well-being.
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Researchers estimate that stress contributes to as many as 80% of all
major illnesses that include cardiovascular disease, cancer, endocrine and
metabolic disease, skin disorders and infectious ailments of all kinds.

4. Studies by the American Medical Association have shown stress to be a
factor in over 75% of all illnesses today.
Research linking stress to a variety of diseases and illnesses has been the
subject of more than 20,000 scientific studies.
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PMS (Premenstrual Syndrome): Dr. James Chuong, director of
Baylor University Medical School's PMS Program, has found
LOW LEVELS of endorphins ("feel good" neurotransmitters)
in women suffering from PMS!
Afternoon Delight
The afternoon hunger that leads us to the cookie jar, soda pop or chocolate bar
may have more to do with a brain chemical imbalance than actual hunger. When
the stress of the day accumulates and too many of our own natural "feel good"
transmitters become depleted we reach for something to make us feel better.
Consider the fact that chocolate contains high amounts of phenylethylamine, a
neurotransmitter that causes feelings of bliss and is involved in feelings of
infatuation. Hence, the love affair many "chocoholics" have with chocolate!
Four decades of research strongly suggests that when the brain has adequate
supplies of the specific amino acids that it uses to make the transmitters that
help us to think clearly, pay attention and sleep well, behavior tends to be
normal. Did you ever notice that when you are feeling good you are less hungry?
Amino Acids, Vitamins, and Minerals Therapy
Neurotransmitter deficiencies can be expressed as both
psychological (behavioral pattern) and physiological (physical
craving) problems. Amino acid therapy provides the nutrition
needed to overcome the physiological problems so that 12-step
recovery programs, counseling and diets can work.
Neurotransmitter Function Drugs that Affect Neurotransmitter Amino Acid
Neurotransmitters Deficiencies Result Supplement
In
Norepinephrine Arousal, Cocaine, speed, Lack of drive, L-phenylalanine
energy, drive caffeine, tobacco depression, lack of
energy
GABA Staying calm, Valium, alcohol, Free-floating L-glutamine
relaxation, marijuana, tobacco anxiety,
focus fearfulness,
insecurity, can't
relax or sleep,
unexplained panic
Endorphins Psychological / Heroin, marijuana, Overly sensitive, dL-phenylalanine
physical pain alcohol, sugar, feelings of
relief, tobacco incompleteness,

5. pleasure, anhedonia
reward, good / (inability to
loving feelings experience
toward others pleasure
normally), world
lacks color,
inability to love
Serotonin Emotional Sugar, marijuana, Depression, Chromium
stability, pain ecstasy, tobacco obsession, worry, Picolinate
tolerance, self- low self-esteem, Increases L-
confidence sleep problems, Tryptophan
hunger, irritability availability
ADD / ADHD
Attention Deficit (Hyperactivity) Disorder
ADD has nothing to do with intelligence. Many people with ADD are highly
intelligent. According to experts in the field of ADD/ADHD, the disorder is the
result of a neurotransmitter imbalance.
Recognizing ADD
Not all children who are naturally rambunctious or extraordinarily curious have
ADHD. Nor do all disorganized adults who have many things going on at one
time have ADD. A professional diagnosis is the best way to determine ADD /
ADHD in any individual. However, the following description, as given by experts
in the field of ADD / ADHD, serves as a guide.
A high level of frustration causes ADD people to be ADD / ADHD, like
impatient. Whatever is going on -- they want it to depression, occurs in
go quickly and be finished. People with ADD suffer varying degrees of
from "overload"; they have a heightened intensity. Not all
awareness of incoming environmental stimuli. symptoms are present.
Their world tends to be too bright, too loud, too There may be just one or
abrasive and too rapidly changing for comfort. a combination of them.
Unable to filter out normal background "noise"
they find it difficult to concentrate on a task before them. Disorientation to time
and space is often a problem. For instance they may have to stop and think
which hand is their right or left. They may have difficulty following a set of
instructions or reading a map. ADD people tend to be disorganized. They have
trouble making and carrying out plans. Many ADD people are hyperactive. As
youngsters they're constantly moving, squirming, twisting and getting into
everything. As adults they're restless and easily distracted. They often tend to
forget appointments, to pay bills and complete tasks. Because they're always in a
hurry, delays of any kind make them frantic. ADD people live under such stress,
frustration is difficult to tolerate, and when they're frustrated they're likely to
become angry.

6. SLIDE 11- doctors are once more looking to the idea that stress -- and sometimes "trying too hard" -- may
actually play a role in up to 30% of allinfertility problems.
"It's becoming more and more important, in terms of what studies we do, to focus our efforts on the
physiological effects of stress and how they may play a role inconception," says Margareta D. Pisarska, MD,
co-director of Center for Reproductive Medicine at Cedars Sinai Medical Center in Los Angeles and editor-in-
chief of the American Society for Reproductive Medicine News.
While doctors say that right now there aren't enough data to draw a clear and obvious link, many believe it's
only a matter of time before we connect all the dots and see the bigger picture.
"What we do know now is that when stress-reduction techniques are employed, something happens in some
women that allows them to get pregnant when they couldn't get pregnant before," says Allen Morgan, MD,
director of Shore Institute for Reproductive Medicine in Lakewood, N.J.
While the exact pathways between fertility and stress remain a mystery, Morgan believes hormones like cortisol
or epinephrine -- which rise and often remain high during times of chronic stress -- play a key role.
Morgan says that it's also possible that reducing stress may help enhance proteins within the uterine lining that
are involved in implantation. She says that stress reduction may increase blood flow to the uterus, which also
affects conception.
The Science of Stress and Fertility
Pisarska tells WebMD that the effects of stress may be different for each woman.
"Stress may cause one set of reactions in one woman, and something else in another, so ultimately the reasons
behind how or why stress impacts fertility may also be very individual," says Pisarska.
While doctors may not know the exact links between stress and fertility, a series of studies shows the impact is
hard to ignore.
In research published in the journal Human Reproduction, doctors compared pregnancy rates in couples that
reported being stressed and those who were not.
What they found: Pregnancy was much more likely to occur during months when couples reported feeling
"good" -- happy and relaxed. It was less likely to occur during the months they reported feeling tense or
anxious.
SLIDE 13- The personality characteristics of Type A Personality & Hardiness tell us about the
interaction between cognition and physiology in terms of the stress response system. Type A
personality and Hardiness, effect cognition or ‘cognitive style’ which influences the way we
experience stress and the physiological effects of stressors. This interaction is clearly shown in
Freidman & Rosenmans’s (1974) study of Type Personality and CVD and Kobasa’s (1977) research
into Hardiness with white collar workers.
Culture and gender can also influence this interaction between cognition and
physiology. Culture and gender can effect ones ‘cognitive style’ influencing
ones experience and perception of stress. For example, being in a cultural
minority can increase stress related illness, and there are physiological
differences in the stress response system between males and females, that
according to Taylor et al. (2000) have an evolutionary basis.