4. Tornado
● Tornado - a scalable, non-blocking web server.
● Also a minimal Web Application Framework.
Written in Python. Open source - Apache V2.0 license.
● Originally built by FriendFeed (acquired by Facebook).
"The framework is distinct from most mainstream web server
frameworks (and certainly most Python frameworks) because it is non-
blocking and reasonably fast. Because it is non-blocking and uses epoll
or kqueue, it can handle thousands of simultaneous standing
connections, which means it is ideal for real-time web services." -
Tornado Web Server Home page blurb.
6. Hello World!
from tornado import ioloop
from tornado import web
class MainHandler(tornado.web.RequestHandler):
def get(self):
self.write("Hello, world")
app = web.Application([(r"/", MainHandler),])
if __name__ == "__main__":
srv = httpserver.HTTPServer(app)
app.listen(8080)
ioloop.IOLoop.instance().start()
7. Our Mission
● Analyze "Hello World" application and figure
out what happens at every step of the way.
All the way from how the server is setup to
how the entire request-response cycle works
under the hood.
● But first a little bit of background about
sockets and poll.
9. Sockets
● Network protocols are handled through a
programming abstraction known as sockets.
Socket is an object similar to a file that
allows a program to accept incoming
connection, make outgoing connections, and
send and receive data. Before two machines
can communicate, both must create a socket
object. The Python implementation just calls
the system sockets API.
● For more info $ man socket
10. Sockets - Address, Family
and Type
● Address - Combination of IP address and
port
● Address family - controls the OSI network
layer protocol, for example AF_INET for
IPv4 Internet sockets using IPv4.
● Socket type - controls the transport layer
protocol, SOCK_STREAM for TCP.
11. TCP Connection sequence
Server Client
socket() socket()
bind()
listen()
accept()
wait for connection establish connection
connect()
request
read() write()
process
response
write() read()
12. Client Socket Example
#Examples from Socket Programming HOWTO
#create an INET, STREAMing socket
s = socket.socket(socket.AF_INET, socket.SOCK_STREAM)
#now connect to the web server on port 8080
s.connect(("www.mcmillan-inc.com", 8080))
13. Server Socket Example
#Examples from Socket Programming HOWTO
#create an INET, STREAMing socket
serversocket = socket.socket(socket.AF_INET,
socket.SOCK_STREAM)
#bind the socket to a public host,and a well-known port
serversocket.bind('localhost', 8080))
#become a server socket
serversocket.listen(5)
while True:
#accept connections from outside
(clientsocket, address) = serversocket.accept()
#do something. In this case assume in a different
thread
ct = client_thread(clientsocket)
ct.run()
14. Server Socket explained
“server socket ... doesn’t send any data. It doesn’t receive
any data. It just produces client sockets. Each client socket
is created in response to some other client socket doing a
connect() to the host and port we’re bound to. As soon as
we’ve created that client socket, we go back to listening for
more connections. The two clients are free to chat it up -
they are using some dynamically allocated port which will
be recycled when the conversation ends.”
- Gordon McMillan in Socket Programming HOWTO
15. Server Socket Loop
Three options -
● dispatch a thread to handle client socket
● create a new process to handle client socket
● Use non-blocking sockets, and mulitplex
between our server socket and any active
client sockets using select.
16. Sockets - Blocking vs. Non-
blocking
● Blocking sockets - socket API calls will block
indefinitely until the requested action (send,
recv, connect or accept) has been
performed.
● Non-blocking sockets - send, recv,
connect and accept can return
immediately without having done anything.
● In Python, you can use socket.
setblocking(0) to make a socket non-
blocking.
17. Handling non-blocking
sockets
“You have (of course) a number of
choices. You can check return
code and error codes and
generally drive yourself crazy. If
you don’t believe me, try it
sometime. Your app will grow
large, buggy and suck CPU. So let’
s skip the brain-dead solutions
and do it right. …
Use select.” Gordon McMillan - Author of
Socket Programming HOWTO &
creator of PyInstaller
18. References
● Socket Programming HOWTO by Gordon
McMillan
● Python Module of the Week (PyMOTW) -
Socket by Doug Hellmann
● Python Essential Reference by David Beazley
20. select
● A system call - allows a program to monitor
multiple file descriptors, waiting until one or
more of the file descriptors become "ready"
for some class of I/O operation
● More info $ man select
● Python’s select() function is a direct
interface to the underlying operating system
implementation.
21. poll
● poll() scales better than select().
● poll() - only requires listing the file
descriptors of interest, while select()
builds a bitmap, turns on bits for the fds of
interest, and then afterward the whole
bitmap has to be linearly scanned again.
● select() is O(highest file
descriptor), while poll() is O(number
of file descriptors).
22. poll API
● Create a poll object
p = select.poll()
● Register a fd and the events of interest to be
notified about
p.register(fd, events)
● Start monitoring. You will be notified if there
is an event of interest on any of the
registered fd's.
p.poll([timeout])
23. epoll
● epoll() system call has event notification
facility.
● So epoll is O(active fd's), poll is O
(registered fd's)
● So epoll faster than poll (there is debate
about exactly how much faster, but let's not
get into that ... because I have no idea).
● Provides exactly same API as poll.
● Tornado tries to use epoll or kqueue and
falls back to select if it cannot find them.
24. References
● Python Module of the Week (PyMOTW) -
select by Doug Hellmann
● The C10K problem by Dan Kegel
● poll, epoll, science, superpoll by Zed Shaw
30. srv.listen(8080)
● First it calls bind_sockets() method
which creates non-blocking, listening
server socket (or sockets) bound to the
given address and port (in this case
localhost:8080).
● Then creates an instance of the IOLoop
object
self.io_loop = IOLoop.instance()
31. IOLoop.__init__
● New select.epoll object is created.
self._impl = select.epoll()
● We will register the file descriptors of the
server sockets with this epoll object to
monitor for events on the sockets. (will be
explained shortly).
33. TCPServer listen() continued
● TCPServer keeps track of the sockets in the _sockets
dict - {fd: socket}
● An accept_handler function is created for each socket
and passed to the IOLoop.add_handlers() method.
● accept_handler is a thin wrapper around a callback
function which just accepts the socket (socket.
accept()) and then runs the callback function.
● In this case the callback function is the
_handle_connection method of the TCPServer.
More on this later.
34. Adding handlers to IOLoop
● Updates ioloop._handlers, with {fd:
accept_handler} to keeps track of which
handler function needs to be called when a
client tries to establish a connection.
● Registers the fd (file descriptor) and data
input and error events for the corresponding
socket with IOLoop._impl (the epoll
object).
35. Current status
Read and error events on
fd's registered with _impl
37. IOLoop.instance().start()
● start() method starts the IOLoop. The IOLoop is
the heartbeat and the nerve center of
everything.
● Continually runs any callback functions, callbacks
related to any timeouts, and then runs poll() method
on self._impl the epoll object for any new data
input events on the socket.
● Note: A connect() request from a client is considered
as an input event on a server socket.
● There is logic in here to send signals to wake up the I/O
loop from idle state, ways to run periodic tasks using
timeouts etc. which we won't get into.
39. What happens when a client
connects?
● The client socket connect() is captured by the
poll() method in the IOLoop's start() method.
● The server runs the accept_handler which
accept()'s the connection, then immediately runs the
associated callback function.
● Remember that accept_handler is a closure that
wraps the callback with logic to accept() the
connection, so accept_handler knows which callback
function to run.
● The callback function in this case is
_handle_connection method of TCPServer
40. TCPServer._handle_connection()
● Creates an IOStream object.
● IOStream is a wrapper around non-
blocking sockets which provides utilities to
read from and write to those sockets.
● Then calls HTTPServer.handle_stream
(...)and passes it the IOStream object
and the client socket address.
41. HTTPServer.handle_stream(...)
● handle_stream() method creates a
HTTPConnection object with our app as a
request_callback.
● HTTPConnection handles a connection to
an HTTP client and executes HTTP requests.
Has methods to parse HTTP headers, bodies,
execute callback tasks etc.
42. HTTPConnection.__init__()
● Reads the headers until "rnrn" ...
delegated to the IOStream object.
self.stream.read_until(b("rnrn"),
self._header_callback)
● _header_callback is _on_headers
method of HTTPConnection. (We'll get to
that in a moment).
43. IOStream read
● A bunch of redirections to various _read_* methods.
Finally once the headers are read and parsed, invokes
_run_callback method. Invokes the socket.
recv() methods.
● Call back is not executed right away, but added to the
IOLoop instance to be called in the next cycle of the IO
loop.
self.io_loop.add_callback(wrapper)
● wrapper is just a wrapper around the callback with
some exception handling. Remember, our callback is
_on_headers method of HTTPConnection object
44. HTTPConnection._on_headers
● Creates the appropriate HTTPRequest
object (now that we have parsed the
headers).
● Then calls the request_callback and
passes the HTTPRequest. Remember this?
May be you don't after all this ...
request_callback is the original app we
created.
● Whew! Light at the end of the tunnel. Only a
couple more steps.
45. app.__call__
● Application is a callable object (has the
__call__ method. So you can just call an
application.
● The __call__ method looks at the url in
the HTTPRequest and invokes the
_execute method of appropriate
RequestHandler - the MainHandler in
our example.
46. RequestHandler._execute
● Executes the appropriate HTTP method
getattr(self,self.request.method.lower()
)(*args, **kwargs)
● In our case get method calls write() and
writes the "Hello World" string.
● Then calls finish() method which
prepares response headers and calls
flush() to write the output to the socket
and close it.
47. Writing the output and closing
● RequestHandler.flush() delegates the write() to
the request, which in turn delegates it to the
HTTPConnection which in turn delegates it to the
IOStream.
● IOStream adds this write method to the IOLoop.
_callbacks list and the write is executed in turn
during the next iteration of IOLoop.
● Once everything is done, the socket is closed (unless of
course you specify that it stay open).
48. Points to note ...
● Note that we did fork a process.
● We did not spawn a thread.
● Everything happens in just one thread and is
multiplexed using epoll.poll()
● Callback handlers are run one at a time, in
turn, on a single thread.
● If a callback task (in the RequestHandler)
is long running, for example a database
query that takes too long, the other requests
which are queued behind will suffer.
49. Other things to consider
● You can make your request handler
asynchronous, and keep the connection open
so that other requests do not suffer.
● But you have to close the connection
yourself.
● See the chat example in the source code.
51. Apache - multiple requests
● How multiple requests are handled depends
on Multiprocessing mode (MPM).
● Two modes
○ prefork
○ worker
52. prefork MPM
● Most commonly used. Is the default mode in
2.x and only option in 1.3.
● The main Apache process will at startup
create multiple child processes. When a
request is received by the parent process, it
will be processed by whichever of the child
processes is ready.
53. worker MPM
● Within each child process there will exist a
number of worker threads.
● The request may be processed by a worker
thread within a child process which already
has other worker threads handling other
requests at the same time.
54. Apache vs. Tornado
● Apache has additional memory overhead of
maintaining the other processes which are
essentially idle when the request load is low.
Tornado does not have this overhead.
● Tornado natively allows you to use
websockets. Experimental support in
apache with apache-websocket module.
● Scalability - There are arguments for both
sides. Personally I haven't built anything that
cannot be scaled by Apache. So no idea if one
is better than the other.
