2. Definitions of Research
When you say that you are undertaking
a research, you imply that the process:
1. Is being undertaken within a framework of
a set of philosophies.
2. Uses procedures, methods and techniques
that have been tested for their validity and
reliability.
3. Is designed to be unbiased and objective.
3. What is a research
An organized, systematic,
data-based, critical, objective,
scientific inquiry into a
specific problem that needs a
solution.
4. Research is a purposive
investigation resulting in
an original contribution to
the existing knowledge.
5. “…the systematic process of
collecting and analyzing
information (data) in order to
increase our understanding of
the phenomenon about which
we are concerned or
interested.”
6. “Careful, systematic, patient study and
investigation in some field of
knowledge, undertaken to establish
facts or principles.” (Grinnell 1993:4)
Grinnell further says ‘research is a
structured inquiry that utilizes
acceptable scientific methodology to
solve problems and creates new
knowledge that is generally
acceptable.’
7. Yields
desired
results.
Scientific
Study Facilitates
Critical
Then, what does the decision
term scientific means? making.
8. Not based on hunches,
experience, and intuition.
Pursues an organized, logical,
step-by-step process.
Purposive & rigorous . Scientific
• Identify problems means
• Gather data
• Analyze data
• Draw valid conclusions
Accuracy and confidence
Objective
10. • Validity is applied to any aspect of the
research process.
– Validity refers to the application of correct
procedures to find answers to a question.
– If the correct procedures applied to find the
answer, then the findings are valid.
• Reliability refers to quality of
measurement procedures that provides;
– Repeatability
– accuracy
11. • Unbiased and objective
– Means that you have taken each step in an unbiased
manner.
– Drawn conclusions to the best of your ability and
without introducing your vested interests.
– Subjectivity is an integral part of your way of
thinking shaped by:
• Educational background, discipline, philosophy,
experience and skills.
– Bias is a deliberate attempt to either conceal or
highlight something.
The methods adopted to carry out a research have
to fulfill these three essential requirements.
12. Hallmarks of Scientific Research
• Purposiveness • Precision and confidence
• Rigor • Objectivity
• Testability • Generalizability
• Replicability • Parsimony
How employee commitment to the
organization can be increased?
13. Purposiveness
• Start with a definite
aim/objective/purpose/ focus.
• Research is a purposive investigation.
– Focus: increasing the commitment of
employees to the organization.
– This will in turn be beneficial in many ways.
• Less turnover
• Less absenteeism
• Increased performance level
14. Rigour
• A good theoretical base and a sound
methodological design add regour to a purposive
study.
• Rigour connotes;
– Carefulness (right sample, right respondents, right
information, minimum degree of bias)
– Scrupulousness (conformity to high standards of
ethics/excellence)
– Degree of exactitude in investigation
– Methodological sophistication to ensure;
• Relevance
• Appropriateness
• Justifiability
15. How employee commitment to the
organization can be increased?
• Suppose manager asks 10 or 12 employees to
indicate what would increase their level of
commitment to the organization. Based on
the responses manger reaches several
conclusions on how employee commitment
can be increased.
• Is this process scientific or unscientific?
Unscientific. Lacks rigour.
16. • Lacks rigour due to;
1. Conclusions being incorrectly drawn based on
few responses. Responses do not represent
entire work force. (lacks methodological
sophistication)
2. Manner of framing and addressing the questions
could have introduced bias (incorrectness in
responses). (lacks methodological sophistication)
3. There can be other reasons that impact on
commitment which the respondents could not
verbalize during the interviews (hence,
researcher failed to include them). (lacks good
theoretical foundation)
17. Testability
• Need to formulate hypothesis. (How?)
– You can talk to a randomly selected sample of people
(Inductive)
– You can refer to previous studies done on organizational
commitment (Deductive)
Employees who receive greater opportunities for
participation in decision making will have a higher level
of commitment.
• Hypothesis should be tested using appropriate
statistical tests to the data collected.
– Correlation analysis
– Chi-square tests
– t- test
18. Deductive Reasoning
Under deductive method
researcher begins with a
hypothesis derived from the
theory and thereafter gathers
empirical evidences to test the
hypothesis in order to establish if
the hypothesis can be confirmed.
Associated with quantitative research.
19. Deductive method
Steps Working theory or
argument (RQ)
Hypothesis or
proposition
Empirical
verification
Working theory or
argument
20. Deductive method - Example
Motivation – Reinforcement Theory
Human beings tend to repeat those actions that
results in positive rewards and avoid those actions
which results in negative actions.
Hypothesis drawn form the theory
Rewards followed by performance tend to generate
higher efforts leading to increased performance.
The deductive reasoning
Performance Rewards Higher Increased
efforts performance
21. Inductive Reasoning
Inquiry is begun with the aid of past observation of
phenomenon which might give a clue or a hunch
for the researcher to begin the research.
The researcher arrives at a theory or
generalization through the accumulation and
summation of a variety of past observation /
experience concerning the phenomenon being
studied.
Generalization is done on past experience or
observation.
Associated with qualitative research.
22. • Inductive method
– Starts from a specific observation.
– Derives general conclusions therefrom.
All swans which have been observed are white in
colour.
Therefore, all swans are white.
– You observe the ‘unit’ and conclude on the
‘whole’ based on the observations on the ‘unit.’
23. • How do you conclude that all the participants
(say 30) attending this course are from public
sector?
24. Inductive Reasoning - Example
Unemployment problem and educated
youth and youth revolts in Sri Lanka.
How do we look at the youth revolts
in Sri Lanka? (1971, 1989)
What are our past experience /
observations in relation to youth
revolts in Sri Lanka?
25. Inductive Reasoning - Example
Our past experience and observations:
When unemployment among educated youth
increases educated youths rise against the
state.
This has happened two times (1971 and 1989)
in the history of Sri Lanka.
Researcher generalizes according to past
observations (repeated observations) when
unemployment increases among educated
youth they revolt against the state.
26. Inductive Reasoning
Steps
Past experience or When the unemployment among
Observation the ……..
They revolt against the state
Hunch
Repeated
It has happened twice
observation
When the unemployment among
Generalization
the ……..
27. Replicability
• Replicability refers to the occurrence of the
same result in other studies as well.
• E.g. based on the results, let us suppose,
that the manager concludes it is the
participation in decision making that
influences most on the commitment of
employees to the organization among
other factors.
– What if this result is repeated in other studies
using the same method adopted?
• The hypo is supported again and again by other
studies.
28. Precision and Confidence
• Difficulty in drawing ‘definitive’
conclusions in research. (Why)
– Unable to study the universe of items,
events, population.
– Have to base on a sample from the
universe.
– Sample does not show exact characteristics
of the universe.
– Measurement errors.
– Biases
Yet, our findings need to be close to the reality!
29. Precision
– Closeness of findings to the “reality” based on
a sample.
– Degree of accuracy or exactitude of the results.
– E.g. Researcher estimates that number of
production days lost due to absenteeism is
between 30 and 40 as against the actual figure
35.
• Closer to reality
• If the estimate is between 25 and 50?
– So, precision is confidence interval in statistics.
30. Confidence
– Being precise is not enough.
– Confidence refers to probability of our the
estimate being correct.
– We should confidently claim that 95% of the
time our results our results will be true.
– Known as confidence level.
– In social science research, 95% of confidence
level is accepted as conventional (significance
level).
– Scientific sampling design achieves both
precision and confidence.
31. Objectivity
• Conclusions/recommendations drawn
should be based on data analysis and
interpretations.
• Subjective and emotional values have no
room.
• E.g. Greater participation in decision
making will increase organizational
commitment.
• What if data prove otherwise and researcher
wants to prove it?
• Findings answer the problem. (Objectivity)
32. Generalizability
• It is the scope of applicability of
research findings to other settings.
• Wider applicability is expected.
• In applied research,
generalizability is limited.
– Applied research
– Basic research
33. Parsimony
• Simplicity is preferred to complexity.
– Data collection
– Data analysis
– Generating solutions
• Manageability of research.
– Not many variables.
34. Controlled
– Exploring causality in relation to two
variables.
– But, in real life there may be more
situations affecting the relationship.
– In your research, you have to set up your
study in a way that minimizes the effects
of other factors affecting the relationship.
– In social science research we only attempt
to quantify their impact.
35. Systematic
– Procedure adopted follows a certain
logical sequence.
– Each step should relate to the next step.
– Not in haphazard way.
Valid and verifiable
– What ever you conclude on the basis of
findings is correct and can be verified by
others.
36. • Empirical
– Conclusions drawn are based on hard
evidence gathered from information.
• Critical
– Scrutiny of procedures used.
– Process of investigation must be foolproof
and free from any drawbacks.
– Process adopted can withstand critical
scrutiny.
38. The scientific method of research
• Scientific method consists of following
elements.
• Concepts – names or labels used to
identify and understand
phenomena eg. Power
• Variables - special kind of concepts
containing within them a
notion of degree or
differentiation. eg.
Degree of power distance
39. The scientific method of research
proposes a relationship
• Hypothesis - between two or more variables
that can be empirically
verified. eg. Increased poverty
leads to crime.
• Measurements – process of verification of
the proposed relationship
between variables
through field research
consist of a set of related
proposition or affirmed
• Theories -
hypothses that suggest
why event occur in the
manner they do.
40. Step 1 Identification of variables to be
studied
• Variables are:
• Independent Variable (IV)
• Dependent Variable (DV)
• Extraneous variable (EV)
41. Variables
• Social science involves the study of variables
and attributes.
• Attributes are characteristics/qualities that
describe an object.
Object Characteristics
Male
Female
Extravert
A person Gleeful
Farmer
42. • So, variables are logical groupings of
attributes.
Male
Gender/Sex
Variable Female
Occupation
Variable
It is this relationship (association, causality) between variables and
attributes that science tries to explain.
43. Step 2 A hypothesis about the relation
of one variable to another
• Deductive approach requires the hypo.
• Conjectural statements (tentative theories)
• Hypo should demonstrate the relationship
between the variables and the concept.
• Hypo demonstrates either positive or
negative relationships.
• Variables included in the hypo must be clearly
stated and measured.
44. Step 3 Testing the hypo. to see the
field reality
• Researcher engaging in an empirical exercise
does the following.
• Define the population (who will be covered)
• Select a representative sample from the
population
• Study the sample using methods to measure the
characteristics of the sample
• Process and analyze data gathered to measure if
the hypothesized relationship between the
variables can be established.
45. Step 4 Comparison of measured
relationships with the original
hypothesis
• This is done to draw generalizations
• Depending on the result, the hypo gets
established or changed.
46. Step 5 Suggestions about the
theoretical significance of the
findings
• Findings reveal whether the
theory can still be held valid or
not.
47. Hypothetico-deductive method
• Developed by Austrian philosopher
Karl Propper.
• This method involves seven steps.
1. Identify a broad problem area
2. Define the problem statement
3. Develop hypothesis (testable, falsifiable)
4. Determine measures
5. Data collection
6. Data analysis
7. Interpretation of data
48. • Applied research
Types of Research • Basic research
• Action research
• Case research (Studies)
• Survey strategy
• Experimental
Research Strategies • Action
• Case
• Ethnographic
