Foundations of Group Behaviour: Key Concepts

FOUNDATIONS OF
GROUP BEHAVIOUR
Dr. Rajesh kamath
Assistant Professor,
Department of Public health
Manipal University

FOUNDATIONS OF GROUP BEHAVIOUR
• Group : Two or more individuals, interacting
and interdependent, who have come together
to achieve particular objectives.
FORMAL GROUP INFORMAL GROUP
A designated work group defined
by an organisation’s structure,
with designated work
assignments establishing tasks.
Neither formally structured nor
organisationally determined
Behaviours team members
should engage in, are stipulated
by and directed towards
organisational goals.
Natural formations in the work
environment that appear in
response to the need for social
contact.
Eg : The 6 members of an airline
flight crew are a formal group.
Eg : Three employees from
different departments who
regularly have lunch or coffee
together are an informal group.

– INFORMAL GROUPS
• Informal groups promote friendships as well
cooperation at work.
• These interactions, though informal, can affect
their behaviour deeply.

– TYPES OF GROUPS
• Formal groups
• 1. Command group
• 2. Task group
• Informal group
• 1. Interest group
• 2. Friendship group

– COMMAND GROUP
• Command group: A group composed of
individuals who report directly to a given
manager.
• Eg: A school principal and her 18 teachers.

– TASK GROUP
• Task group : A group of people working together to
complete a job task.
• A task group can cross hierarchical command
relationships.
• Eg.: If a college student is accused of a campus crime,
dealing with the problem might require coordination
among the dean of academic affairs, the dean of
students, the registrar, the director of security and the
student’s advisor. Such a formation constitutes a task
group.
• All command groups are task groups.
• But all task groups are not command groups.

– INTEREST GROUP
• Interest group : People working together to
attain a specific objective with which each is
concerned.
• Eg. Employees who band together to have
their vacation schedules altered.

– FRIENDSHIP GROUP
• Friendship group : People brought together
because they share one or more common
characteristics.
• Eg: Support for regional cricket teams during
IPL matches.

– WHY DO PEOPLE FORM GROUPS
• Why do people form Groups and feel so strongly
about them?
• Consider the celebrations that follow a cricket
win.
• Fans have staked their own self-image on the
performance of someone else.
• Fans of the losing team feel dejected , even
embarassed.
• The human tendency to take personal pride or
offense for the accomplishments of a group is
explained by the Social identity theory.

– SOCIAL IDENTITY THEORY
• Social identity theory: The perspective that considers when
and why individuals consider themselves members of
groups.
• It proposes that people have emotional reactions to the
failure or success of their group because their self esteem
gets tied into the performance of the group.
• Social identity helps people reduce uncertainty about who
they are and what they should do.
• People develop a lot of identities through their lives.
• Downside of social identity : Ingroup favouritism : This
means we see members of our ingroup better than other
people, and people not in our group as all the same. Leads
to stereotyping.

– SOCIAL IDENTITY THEORY
• Why do people develop a social identity ?
• 1. Similarity
• 2. Distinctiveness
• 3. Status
• 4. Uncertainty reduction

- SOCIAL IDENTITY THEORY
• 1. Similarity : in Values, characteristics, demography.
• 2. Distinctiveness : People are more likely to notice identities
that show how they are different from other groups.
• Eg.:1. 2 women in an otherwise all male work group.
• 2. Veterinarians who worked in veterinary medicine
(where everyone is a veterinarian) identified with their
organisation…
• …Whereas vets in non-vet medicine fields such as
animal research (where the percentage of vets is much lower)
identified more with their profession.

- SOCIAL IDENTITY THEORY
• 3. Status : Eg. : MPH Graduates of prestigious
institutes like Manipal !!
• 4. Uncertainty reduction : Who they are and
how they fit into the world.
• Eg.: If a big company is starting a smaller
company, then employees might have a hard
time understanding which company to
identify with.

– STAGES OF GROUP DEVELOPMENT
• 5 STAGE MODEL :
• 1. Forming
• 2. Storming
• 3. Norming
• 4. Performing
• 5. Adjourning

- STAGES OF GROUP DEVELOPMENT
• 1. Forming stage : The first stage in
group development, characterised by
much uncertainty about the group’s
purpose, structure and leadership.
• Complete when the members have
begun to think of themselves as part of a
group.

• 2. Storming :
• Intragroup conflict.
• Members accept the existence of the group
but resist the constraints it imposes on
individuality.
• There is conflict over who will control the
group.
• Hierarchy of leadership becomes clear.

• 3. Norming :
• Close relationships develop and the group
demonstrates cohesiveness.
• Strong sense of group identity and
camaraderie.
• Group structure solidifies.
• Common set of expectations of what defines
correct member behaviour.

• 4. Performing :
• Structure at this point is fully functional and
accepted.
• This is the last stage for permanent work
groups.

• 5. Adjourning :
• For temporary groups, this is a preparation for
disbanding.
• Wrapping up activities is the focus rather than
high task performance. Some group members
are upbeat, others may be depressed.

• Generally, a group becomes more effective as it
progresses through the first 4 stages.
• Under some conditions, high levels of conflict
may be conducive to high group performance. So
stage 2 might outperform stage 3 and 4.
• Some stages can go on simultaneously – like
storming and performing.
• Groups can regress to previous stages.
• It ignores organisational context: Eg. Cockpit crew
ready in 10 minutes.

• Alternative model for temporary groups with deadlines:
• Temporary groups with deadlines do not seem to follow the
usual 5 stage model.
• 1. The first meeting sets the group’s direction.
• 2. The first phase is one of inertia.
• 3. A transition takes place at the end of this phase, when
the group has used up exactly half of its allotted time.
• 4. There are major changes.
• 5. A second phase of inertia follows.
• 6. The last meeting has markedly accelerated activity.
• This pattern is called the Punctuated equilibrium model.

– PUNCTUATED EQUILIBRIUM MODEL

– GROUP PROPERTIES
• Group Properties:
• 1. Roles
• 2. Norms
• 3. Status
• 4. Size
• 5. Cohesiveness

- GROUP PROPERTIES
• 1. Roles : A set of expected behaviour patterns
attributed to someone occupying a given
position in a social unit.
• We are expected to play diverse roles.
• Role perception
• Role expectations
• Psychological contract
• Role conflict

- GROUP PROPERTIES
• Role perception : An individual’s view of how he or she is supposed
to act in a given situation.
• Friends, books, movies, t.v.
• Role expectations : The way others believe you should act in a
given context.
• Eg. A supreme court judge vs a football team manager.
• Psychological contract : An unwritten agreement that sets out what
management expects from an employee and vice versa.
• What happens when role expectations implied in the
psychological contract are not met?
• Role conflict : When compliance with one role requirement may
make it more difficult to comply with another, the result is role
conflict. Eg.: Work vs Family

- GROUP PROPERTIES
• 2. Norms : Acceptable standards of behaviour within a
group that are shared by the group’s members.
• 1. Performance norms : How hard members should
work, what the level of output should be, how to get
the job done, what level of tardiness is appropriate.
• 2. Appearance norms : Dress codes, when to look busy.
• 3. Social arrangement norms : Whom to have lunch
with, whether to form friendships with co workers.
• 4. Resource allocation norms : Assignment of difficult
jobs, distribution of resources like pay or equipment.
• HOMEWORK : HAWTHORNE STUDIES.

- GROUP PROPERTIES
• Conformity : The adjustment of one’s behaviour to align with the
norms of the group.
• People conform to the important groups to which they belong or
hope to belong. These impotant groups are called Reference
groups.
• The Solomon Asch studies:
• Groups of 7 to 8 people were asked to compare 2 cards held by the
experimenter.
• Under ordinary conditions, fewer than 1% errors were made.
• But in the groups, the USS(UnSuspecting Subject) gave atleast 1
answer that conformed – that they knew was wrong but was
consistent with the replies of other group members – and the
average conformer gave wrong answers 37% of the time.
• As managers, we should be aware of group norms, which press us
or our subordinates or our superiors towards conformity.

– THE SOLOMON ASCH STUDIES

- GROUP PROPERTIES
• Deviant Workplace Behaviour : Voluntary behaviour that violates
significant organisational norms and, in so doing, threatens the well
being of the organisation or its members. Also called antisocial
behaviour or workplace incivility.
• Employees report increased rudeness and disregard by bosses and co-
workers in recent years.
• Half of employees who have suffered incivility ave thought of changing
jobs and 12% have actually quit.
• Psychological stress and illness.
• Reduction in employee
cooperation, commitment, motivation, productivity, job satisfaction.
• Increased Turnover.
• Evidence proves it is more likely in a group.
• Groups provide a shield of anonymity.

Typology of Deviant workplace
behaviour
CATEGORY EXAMPLES
PERFORMANCE 1. Coming late or leaving early.
2. Working slowly.
3. Being careless and making mistakes
that lead to losses.
MATERIAL 1. Arson
2. Sabotage
3. Stealing
INTERPERSONAL 1. Being biased.
2. Verbal abuse.
3. Being cynical and negative.
4. Blaming others.
5. Sexual harassment.

- GROUP PROPERTIES
• 3. Status : A socially defined position or rank given to
groups or group members by others.
• Status characteristics theory :
• 3 sources
• 1. The power a person wields over others.
• Eg. control over a group’s resources.
• 2. A person’s ability to contribute to a group’s goals.
• Eg. Star sportspersons, crack lawyers in law firms, top
notch hospital administrators.
• 3. An individual’s personal characteristics.
• Eg. Money, intelligence, friendly personality.

- GROUP PROPERTIES
• Status and Norms :
• High status individuals (HSI) – more freedom to
deviate from norms.
• High status individuals (Doctors, lawyers, top
executives) resent social pressure from low status
individuals. Eg. Insurance company employees.
• HSIs resist conformity pressures more than
others. Eg. Outstanding academics, star athletes.

- GROUP PROPERTIES
• Status and group interaction :
• HSIs – more assertive – speak out more, criticise more.
• Status differences actually inhibit diversity of
ideas, because lower status members tend to participate
less actively, and if they possess expertise and
insights, then it is a loss to the group.
• Status inequity :
• It is important for group members to believe the status
hierarchy is equitable.
• People expect rewards to be proportionate to costs
incurred.
• Eg. Reena and Priya for the position of head nurse.

- GROUP PROPERTIES
• 4. Size
• Smaller groups are faster at completing tasks than
larger ones.
• Individuals perform better in smaller groups than in
larger ones.
• In problem solving, larger groups consistently get
better marks than their smaller counterparts.
• If the goal is fact finding – larger groups more effective.
• Smaller groups –doing something productive with that
input.

- GROUP PROPERTIES
• Social loafing : The tendency for individuals to expend less effort
when working collectively than when working individually.
• Eg: German psychologist Max Ringelmann’s rope-pulling
experiment. Late 1920s.
• 1 person – 63 kgs of force.
• Group of 3 – per person force dropped to 53 kgs.
• Group of 8 – fell further to 31 kgs!!!
• Replications of this experiment have given similar results.
• Cause :
• Belief that others in the group are not carrying their fare share.
• Since no clear relationship between an individual’s input and the
group’s output, individuals may be tempted to become free riders.
• As managers, we must be able to identify and quantify individual
efforts.

- GROUP PROPERTIES
• Prevent Social Loafing :
• Set group goals.
• Increase intergroup competition.
• Engage in peer evaluation.
• Select highly motivated people who prefer
working in groups.
• Base group rewards on each member’s unique
contribution.

- GROUP PROPERTIES
• 5. Cohesiveness : The degree to which group
members are attracted to each other and are
motivated to stay in the group.
• Affected by:
• 1. Time spent together by the group members.
• 2. Size – the smaller, the more cohesive.
• 3. External threats.
• Relationship between cohesiveness and
productivity depends on the group’s performance
related norms. (Refer Diagram)

FOUNDATIONS OF GROUP BEHAVIOUR –
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN GROUP COHESIVENESS,
PERFORMANCE NORMS AND PRODUCTIVITY

- GROUP PROPERTIES
• How to increase group cohesiveness?
• 1. Make the group smaller.
• 2. Encourage agreement with group’s goals.
• 3. Increase the time members spend together.
• 4. Increase the group’s status and the perceived
difficulty for attaining mambership.
• 5. Stimulate competition with other groups.
• 6. Reward the group rather than individual
members.
• 7. Physically isolate the group.

–GROUP DECISION MAKING
• Groupthink : A phenomenon in which the norm for consensus
overrides the realistic appraisal of alternative courses of action.
• Symptoms:
• 1. Group members rationalise any resistance to the assumptions
they have made, no matter how strong the evidence.
• 2. Members apply direct pressure on those who express doubts
about the option favoured by the majority.
• 3. Members who differ keep silent, even minimising to themselves
the importance of their doubts.
• 4. Illusion of unanimity. Abstention becomes a yes vote.
• Groupthink occurs most often when there is a clear group identity.
• When members have a positive image of the group that they want
to protect.
• When they perceive a threat to this image.

• How can managers minimise groupthink?
• 1. Monitor group size. More than 10 members is when
groupthink starts to take stronger effect.
• 2. Group leaders must play an impartial role.
• 3. Groupleaders must actively seek input from all
members and avoid expressing their own opinions.
• 4. 1 group member must play the “Devil’s Advocate”.
• 5. The group can first talk about that dangers or risks
inherent in a decision rather than the possible gains.

• Groupshift : A change in decision risk between a group’s
decision and an individual’s decision that a member within
the group would make; the shift can be toward either
conservatism or greater risk.
• Group discussions tend to exaggerate the initial position of
the group. WHY?
• 1. The discussion makes the members more comfortable
with each other, thus more bold and daring.
• 2. The group diffuses responsibility.
• 3. To demonstrate how different they are from the rest of
the group.
• 4. To prove they are committed.

• Group decision making techniques :
• 1. Interacting groups
• 2. Brainstorming
• 3. Nominal group technique
• 4. Electronic meeting.

• 1. Interacting groups : Typical groups in which
members interact with each other face to
face.
• Groupthink.
• Conformity.

• 2. Brainstorming : An idea-generation process that specifically
encourages any and all alternatives while withholding any
criticism of those alternatives.
• 6 to 12 people.
• Group leader states the problem in a clear manner so that all
participants understand.
• Members then give as many altenatives as they can in a given
length of time.
• No criticism is allowed.
• All alternatives are recorded for later discussion and analysis.
• Evidence says not very efficient. WHY?
• Production blocking : Many are talking at once, which blocks the
thought process.

• 3. Nominal group technique :
• Restricts discussion, hence the term “nominal”.
• Group members are all physically present, but operate independently.
HOW?
• 1. Members meet as a group, but before any discussion takes place, each
independently writes down ideas on the problem.
• 2. After this silent period, each member presents 1 idea to the group. No
discussion takes place until all ideas have been presented and recorded.
• 3. The group discusses the ideas for clarity and evaluates them.
• 4. Each group member silently and independently rank orders the ideas.
The idea with the highest aggregate ranking determines the final
decision.
• What does the research say?
• Outperforms Brainstorming.

• 4. Electronic meeting : A meeting in which members interact on
computers, allowing for anonymity of comments and aggregation of
votes.
• Most recent.
• Upto 50 people sit around a horse shoe shaped table on networked
laptops.
• Issues are presented, to which they type anonymous responses.
• These individual comments as well as the aggregate votes are displayed
on a projection screen.
• Allows people to be brutally honest without penalty.
• Fast.
• The evidence?
• So far, decreased group effectiveness, more time to complete tasks,
reduced member satisfaction.
• Early days yet, likely to stay and grow popular.

HOMEWORK
• Homework:
• Strengths and weaknesses of group decision
making.
• Global implications.
• Summary and implications for managers.

• References :
• ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR - STEPHEN
ROBBINS – 14TH EDITION

Foundations of Group Behaviour: Key Concepts

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