モデル高速化百選

モデル高速化百選
内田祐介
AIシステム部
株式会社ディー・エヌ・エー
1

前提
• 主に下記の条件を満たす手法を紹介
• 特定のハードウェアに依存せずに実現可能
• 畳み込みニューラルネットワーク (CNN) が対象
• 推論時の高速化が対象
• 百選しましたが一部だけ紹介します
• Appendixにリストがあります
2

高速化？
• モデルパラメータ数の削減
• FLOPs (MACs) 数の削減
• モデルファイルサイズの削減
• 推論時間の削減
• 訓練時間の削減
微妙に違うので、使うときは何を重視すべきか、
論文を読むときは何が改善しているのかを気にする
3

モデル高速化
• 畳み込みの分解 (Factorization)
• 枝刈り (Pruning)
• アーキテクチャ探索 (Neural Architecture Search; NAS)
• 早期終了、動的計算グラフ
(Early Termination, Dynamic Computation Graph)
• 蒸留 (Distillation)
• 量子化 (Quantization)
4

5
畳み込みの分解 (Factorization)

畳み込み層の計算量
• 入力レイヤサイズ：H x W x N
• 畳み込みカーネル：K x K x N x M
convKxK, M と表記 (e.g. conv 3x3, 64)
• 出力レイヤサイズ：H x W x M
• 畳み込みの計算量：H・W・N・K2・M（バイアス項を無視）
6
W
H
N M
K
K
W
H
入力特徴マップ
畳み込み
カーネル
N
出力特徴マップ
＊
和要素積
× M
convK×K, M
畳み込み層の計算量は
• 画像/特徴マップのサイズ（HW）
• 入出力チャネル数（NM）
• カーネルサイズ（K2）
に比例

空間方向の分解
• 大きな畳み込みカーネルを小さな畳み込みカーネルに分解
• 例えば5x5の畳み込みを3x3の畳み込み2つに分解
• これらは同じサイズの受容野を持つが分解すると計算量は25:18
• Inception-v2 [4] では最初の7x7畳み込みを3x3畳み込み3つに分解
• 以降のSENetやShuffleNetV2等の実装でも利用されている[18]
7
特徴マップ
conv5x5 conv3x3 - conv3x3
[4] C. Szegedy, et al., "Rethinking the Inception Architecture for Computer Vision," in Proc. of CVPR, 2016.
[18] T. He, et al., "Bag of Tricks for Image Classification with Convolutional Neural Networks," in Proc. of
CVPR, 2019.

空間方向の分解
• nxnを1xnとnx1に分解することも
8[4] C. Szegedy, et al., "Rethinking the Inception Architecture for Computer Vision," in Proc. of CVPR, 2016.

空間方向とチャネル方向の分解 (separable conv)
• 空間方向とチャネル方向の畳み込みを独立に行う
• Depthwise畳み込み（空間方向）
• 特徴マップに対しチャネル毎に畳み込み
• 計算量：H・W・N・K2・M (M=N)
H・W・K2・N
• Pointwise畳み込み（チャネル方向）
• 1x1の畳み込み
• 計算量：H・W・N・K2・M (K=1)
H・W・N・M
• Depthwise + pointwise (separable)
• 計算量：H・W・N・(K2 + M)
≒ H・W・N・M (※M >> K2)
• H・W・N・K2・M から大幅に計算量を削減
9W
H
W
H
N
1
1
M
W
H
W
H
N
K
K
N
W
H
W
H
N M
K
K通常
depthwise
pointwise

Xception[6]
• Separable convを多用したモデル
10[6] F. Chollet, "Xception: Deep learning with depthwise separable convolutions," in Proc. of CVPR, 2017.

MobileNet[7]
• depthwise/pointwise convを多用
• 改良版のMobileNetV2[13]/V3[20]もある
11
通常の畳み込み MobileNetの1要素
[7] A. Howard, et al., "MobileNets: Efficient Convolutional Neural Networks for Mobile Vision Applications," in
arXiv:1704.04861, 2017.
[13] M. Sandler, et al., "MobileNetV2: Inverted Residuals and Linear Bottlenecks," in Proc. of CVPR, 2018.
[20] A. Howard, et al., "Searching for MobileNetV3," in arXiv:1905.02244, 2019.

ShuffleNet[8]
• MobileNetのボトルネックとなっているconv1x1を
group conv1x1 + channel shuffleに置換
• group conv: 入力の特徴マップをG個にグループ化し
各グループ内で個別に畳み込みを行う
（計算量 H・W・N・K2・M → H・W・N・K2・M / G）
• channel shuffle: チャネルの順序を入れ替える
reshape + transposeの操作で実現可能
c shuffle
depthwise conv
gconv 1x1
spatial channel
gconv 1x1
[8] X. Zhang, et al., "ShuffleNet: An Extremely Efficient
Convolutional Neural Network for Mobile Devices," in
arXiv:1707.01083, 2017.

ChannelNet[11]
• チャネル方向に1次元の畳み込みを行う
13
[11] H. Gao, Z. Wang, and S. Ji, "ChannelNets: Compact and Efficient Convolutional Neural Networks
via Channel-Wise Convolutions", in Proc. of NIPS, 2018.

枝刈り (Pruning)
• 畳み込み層や全結合層の重みの一部を0にすることで
パラメータ数・計算量を削減
1. ネットワークを学習
2. 枝刈り（精度低下）
3. ネットワークを再学習（精度をある程度回復）
というフローが一般的
15

Unstructured vs. Structured Pruning
• Pruning前の畳み込みフィルタ
• Unstructured pruning
• Structured pruning（フィルタ（チャネル）pruningが一般的）
16
K
K
…
…
…
M（出力チャネル）個
計算量vs.精度のtrade-offは優れているが
専用のハードウェアでないと高速化できない
単にチャネル数が減少したネットワークに
再構築が可能で高速化の恩恵を受けやすい

Deep Compression[23, 25, 26]
• Unstructuredなpruning
• L2正則化を加えて学習し、絶対値が小さいweightを0に
• 実際に高速に動かすには専用ハードが必要[26]
17
[23] S. Han, et al., "Learning both Weights and Connections for Efficient Neural Networks," in Proc. of NIPS, 2015.
[25] S. Han, et al., "Deep Compression: Compressing Deep Neural Networks with Pruning, Trained Quantization and
Huffman Coding," in Proc. of ICLR, 2016.
[26] S. Han, et al., "EIE: Efficient Inference Engine on Compressed Deep Neural Network," in Proc. of ISCA, 2016.

Pruning Filters for Efficient ConvNets[30]
• Structured pruning（チャネルレベルのpruning）
• 各レイヤについて、フィルタの重みの絶対値の総和が
小さいものからpruning
• 各レイヤのpruning率はpruningへのsensitivityから
人手で調整
• Pruning後にfinetune
18[30] H. Li, et al., "Pruning Filters for Efficient ConvNets," in Proc. of ICLR, 2017.

Network Slimming[33]
• Batch normのパラメータγにL1ロスをかけて学習
• 学習後、γが小さいチャネルを削除し、fine-tune
19
チャネル毎に入力を平均0分散1に正規化、γとβでscale & shift
チャネルi
Batch
normalization
[33] Z. Liu, et al., "Learning Efficient Convolutional Networks through Network Slimming," in Proc. of ICCV,
2017.

L0ではなくLasso
に緩和して解く
Channel Pruning[34]
• あるfeature mapのチャネル削除した場合に
次のfeature mapの誤差が最小となるようチャネルを選択
20[34] Y. He, et al., "Channel Pruning for Accelerating Very Deep Neural Networks," in Proc. of ICCV, 2017.

ThiNet[35]
• 前述の手法と同じように、次のfeature mapの誤差が
最小となるレイヤをgreedy削除
• 削除後に、畳み込みの重みを誤差が最小になるように
調整→finetune
21
[35] J. Luo, et al., "ThiNet: A Filter Level Pruning Method for Deep Neural Network Compression," in Proc.
of ICCV, 2017.

AutoML for Model Compression and Acceleration (AMC)[41]
• 強化学習（off-policy actor-critic）により
各レイヤ毎の最適なpruning率を学習
• 入力は対象レイヤの情報とそれまでのpruning結果、
報酬は –エラー率×log(FLOPs) or log(#Params)
22
[41] Y. He, et al., "AMC - AutoML for Model Compression and Acceleration on Mobile Devices," in Proc. of
ECCV, 2018.

Lottery Ticket Hypothesis (ICLR’19 Best Paper)[44]
• NNには、「部分ネットワーク構造」と「初期値」の
組み合わせに「当たり」が存在し、それを引き当てると
効率的に学習が可能という仮説
• Unstructuredなpruningでその構造と初期値を見つけることができた
23
https://www.slideshare.net/YosukeShinya/the-lottery-ticket-hypothesis-finding-small-trainable-neural-networks
[44] Jonathan Frankle, Michael Carbin, "The Lottery Ticket Hypothesis: Finding Sparse, Trainable Neural
Networks," in Proc. of ICLR, 2019.

Network Pruning as Architecture Search[45]
• Structuredなpruning後のネットワークをscratchから学習させても
finetuneと同等かそれより良い結果が得られるという主張
• つまりpruningは、重要な重みを探索しているのではなく
各レイヤにどの程度のチャネル数を割り当てるかという
Neural Architecture Search (NAS) をしているとみなせる
• Lottery Ticket Hypothesisではunstructuredで、低LRのみ、
実験も小規模ネットワークのみ
24[45] Z. Liu, et al., "Rethinking the Value of Network Pruning," in Proc. of ICLR, 2019.

25
アーキテクチャ探索
(Neural Architecture Search; NAS)

アーキテクチャ探索 (NAS)
• NNのアーキテクチャを自動設計する手法
• 探索空間、探索手法、精度評価手法で大まかに分類される
• 探索空間
• Global, cell-based
• 探索手法
• 強化学習、進化的アルゴリズム、gradientベース、random
• 精度測定手法
• 全学習、部分学習、weight-share、枝刈り探索
26
T. Elsken, J. Metzen, and F. Hutter, "Neural Architecture Search: A Survey," in JMLR, 2019.
M. Wistuba, A. Rawat, and T. Pedapati, "A Survey on Neural Architecture Search," in arXiv:1905.01392, 2019.
https://github.com/D-X-Y/awesome-NAS

NASNet[52]
• 探索空間：cell、
探索手法：強化学習 (Proximal Policy Optimization)
• Globalな設計にドメイン知識を活用、
構成するcellのみを自動設計
→探索空間を大幅に削減
• Normal cell x Nとreduction cellのスタック
• Reduction cellは最初にstride付きのOPで
特徴マップをダウンサンプル
• Reduction cell以降でチャネルを倍に
27
[52] B. Zoph, V. Vasudevan, J. Shlens, and Q. V. Le, "Learning transferable architectures for scalable
image recognition," in Proc. of CVPR, 2018.

NASNetのコントローラの動作
1. Hidden state※1 1, 2を選択
2. それらへのOPsを選択※2
3. それらを結合するOP (add or concat)
を選択し新たなhidden stateとする
※1 Hidden state: 緑のブロックとhi, hi-I
※2 Hidden stateへのOP候補
28

29

30
sep
3x3
avg
3x3

31
concat
sep
3x3
avg
3x3

ENAS[54]
• 探索空間：cell、探索手法：強化学習 (REINFORCE)
• Cellの構造を出力するRNNコントローラと、
コントローラーが出力する全てのネットワークをサブグラフとして保
持できる巨大な計算グラフ（ネットワーク）を同時に学習
→生成したネットワークの学習が不要に（1GPU for 0.45 days!）
• Single shot, weight share
• 詳細は神資料*を参照
32
[54] H. Pham, M. Y. Guan, B. Zoph, Q. V. Le, and Jeff Dean, "Efficient Neural Architecture
Search via Parameter Sharing," in Proc. of ICML, 2018.
* https://www.slideshare.net/tkatojp/efficient-neural-architecture-search-via-parameters-
sharing-icml2018

ENASの学習
• コントローラーのパラメータθと
巨大なネットワークのパラメータwを交互に学習
• wの学習
• θを固定し、サブグラフをサンプリング
• サブグラフをforward-backwardしwを更新
• θの学習
• wを固定し、サブグラフをサンプリング
• validationデータで精度を測定し報酬を取得、REINFORCEでθを更新
33

DARTS[57]
• 探索空間：cell、探索手法：gradient
• グラフの接続やOPの選択をsoftmaxで実現することで、
構造探索もforward-backwardで実現
• ENASと同じくshared param、wと構造を交互に最適化
34[57] H. Liu, K. Simonyan, and Y. Yang, "DARTS: Differentiable Architecture Search," in Proc. of ICLR, 2019.

FBNet[61]
• DARTSと同じくgradient-based
• 各OPの実デバイス上での処理時間をlookup tableに保持
• 処理時間を考慮したロスをかける
35
[61] B. Wu, et al., "FBNet: Hardware-Aware Efficient ConvNet Design via Differentiable Neural Architecture
Search", in Proc. of CVPR, 2019.
クロスエントロピー処理時間

他にも
[58] H. Cai, L. Zhu, and S. Han, "ProxylessNAS: Direct Neural Architecture Search on
Target Task and Hardware," in Proc. of ICLR, 2019.
[59] M. Tan, B. Chen, R. Pang, V. Vasudevan, M. Sandler, A. Howard, and Q. V. Le,
"MnasNet: Platform-Aware Neural Architecture Search for Mobile," in Proc. of CVPR,
2019.
[60] X. Dai, et al., "ChamNet: Towards Efficient Network Design through Platform-
Aware Model Adaptation," in Proc. of CVPR, 2019.
[62] D. Stamoulis, et al., "Single-Path NAS: Device-Aware Efficient ConvNet Design,"
in Proc. of ICMLW, 2019.
36

37
早期終了、動的計算グラフ
(Early Termination,
Dynamic Computation Graph)

早期終了 (Early termination)
• 入力に応じてネットワークの途中で結果を出力し、
それ以降の処理を行わない（早期終了）
• 入力に応じてネットワークの構造を動的に変える
（動的計算グラフ; dynamic computation graph）
• 「平均処理時間」を削減する
38

BranchyNet[65]
• ネットワークの途中に結果の出力層を追加
• 学習時にはすべての出力層に適当なweightをかけて学習
• そのsoftmaxのエントロピーが閾値以下の場合にExit
39
[65] S. Teerapittayanon, et al., "BranchyNet: Fast Inference via Early Exiting from Deep Neural Networks,"
in Proc. of ICPR, 2016.

Spatially Adaptive Computation Time (SACT)[66]
• ACT: 各ResBlockがhalting scoreを出力、合計が1を超えると
以降の処理をスキップ（空間領域でも行うとSACT）
40
計算量に関する勾配を追加
[66] M. Figurnov, et al., "Spatially Adaptive Computation Time for Residual Networks," in Proc. of CVPR, 2017.

Runtime Neural Pruning[68]
• 各レイヤ毎に、直前までの特徴マップを入力とするRNNが
利用する畳み込みフィルタ集合を決定
• Keepした畳み込みフィルタ数と元タスクの損失関数（最終層の場合
）を負の報酬としてQ学習でRNNを学習
41[68] J. Lin, et al., "Runtime Neural Pruning," in Proc. of NIPS, 2017.

BlockDrop[73]
• Policy networkに画像を入力、どのBlockをスキップするかを出力
• KeepとなったResBlockのみをforward
• 認識が失敗した場合は負の報酬を、成功した場合にはスキップ率に応
じた正の報酬を与えることでpolicy networkを学習
42[73] Z. Wu, et al., "BlockDrop: Dynamic Inference Paths in Residual Networks," in Proc. of CVPR, 2018.

蒸留 (Distillation)
• 大きなモデルや、複数のネットワークのアンサンブルを
「教師モデル」とし、小さな「生徒モデル」を学習
• 教師の出力や中間特徴を生徒が模擬するようなロスをかける
44
1. アンサンブルモデルや大
きなモデルを学習
2. 学習済みモデルを利用して
小さなモデルを学習

Distilling the Knowledge in a Neural Network[77]
45
……
学習画像
学習済みモデル
学習するモデル
…
正解ラベル
（ハード
ターゲット）
通常T = 1のsoftmaxのTを大きくした
ソフトターゲットを利用
…
ソフトターゲット
ソフト
ターゲット
ハード
ターゲット
正解ラベルと
学習モデル出力の
両方を利用
[77] G. Hinton, et al., "Distilling the Knowledge in a
Neural Network," in Proc. of NIPS Workshop, 2014.

FitNet[79]
• 教師よりもdeepかつthinな生徒を学習する
• 生徒のguided layerが、教師のhit layerの出力を
正確に模擬する (regression) ロスを追加
46[79] A. Romero, et al., "FitNets: Hints for Thin Deep Nets," in Proc. of ICLR, 2015.

量子化
• ネットワークのパラメータ等を量子化することで
モデルサイズを削減、学習や推論を高速化
• 量子化対象
• 重み、アクティベーション（特徴マップ）、勾配、エラー
• 量子化手法
• 線形、log、非線形 / スカラ、ベクトル、直積量子化
• 量子化ビット
• 1bit（バイナリ）、3値 (-1, 0, 1)、8bit、16bit、任意bit
• 専用ハードがないと恩恵を受けられない事が多い
• 半精度/混合精度*は汎用ハード＆フレームワークでもサポート
48* https://github.com/NVIDIA/apex

WAGE[96]
• weights (W), activations (A), gradients (G), errors (E)
の全てを量子化
49[96] S. Wu, et al., "Training and Inference with Integers in Deep Neural Networks," in Proc. of ICLR, 2018.

WAGE[96]
• weights (W), activations (A), gradients (G), errors (E)
50
バイナリ
[96] S. Wu, et al., "Training and Inference with Integers in Deep Neural Networks," in Proc. of ICLR, 2018.

Quantization and Training of Neural Networks for Efficient Integer-Arithmetic-Only Inference[97]
• 推論時にuint8の演算がメインとなるように
学習時に量子化をシミュレーションしながら学習
• TensorFlow公式に実装が存在*
51
[97] B. Jacob, et al., "Quantization and Training of Neural Networks for Efficient Integer-Arithmetic-Only
Inference," in Proc. of CVPR, 2018.
* https://github.com/tensorflow/tensorflow/blob/master/tensorflow/contrib/quantize/README.md

汎用的な高速化手法を紹介
• 畳み込みの分解 (Factorization)
• 枝刈り (Pruning)
• アーキテクチャ探索 (Neural Architecture Search; NAS)
• 早期終了、動的計算グラフ
(Early Termination, Dynamic Computation Graph)
• 蒸留 (Distillation)
• 量子化 (Quantization)
53

Take-home Message
• 軽量なモデル（畳み込みの分解）をPruningするのが
手っ取り早い
• NASが庶民の手に
• アーキテクチャとモデルの同時学習（Single shot化）
• FLOPsではなく実デバイスでの速度をフィードバック
• 今後
• PruningとNASの一体化
• 参考
• 第21回ステアラボ人工知能セミナー
「畳み込みニューラルネットワークの高精度化と高速化」
54

畳み込みの分解
[1] L. Sifre and S. Mallat, "Rotation, Scaling and Deformation Invariant Scattering for Texture Discrimination," in Proc. of CVPR, 2013.
[2] L. Sifre, "Rigid-motion Scattering for Image Classification, in Ph.D. thesis, 2014.
[3] M. Lin, Q. Chen, and S. Yan, "Network in Network," in Proc. of ICLR, 2014.
[4] C. Szegedy, et al., "Rethinking the Inception Architecture for Computer Vision," in Proc. of CVPR, 2016.
[5] F. N. Iandola, S. Han, M. W. Moskewicz, K. Ashraf, W. J. Dally, and K. Keutzer, "SqueezeNet: AlexNet-level accuracy with 50x fewer parameters and <0.5MB model size," in
arXiv:1602.07360, 2016.
[6] F. Chollet, "Xception: Deep learning with depthwise separable convolutions," in Proc. of CVPR, 2017.
[7] A. Howard, et al., "MobileNets: Efficient Convolutional Neural Networks for Mobile Vision Applications," in arXiv:1704.04861, 2017.
[8] X. Zhang, et al., "ShuffleNet: An Extremely Efficient Convolutional Neural Network for Mobile Devices," in arXiv:1707.01083, 2017.
[9] B. Wu, et al., "Shift: A Zero FLOP, Zero Parameter," in arXiv:1711.08141, 2017.
[10] N. Ma, X. Zhang, H. Zheng, and J. Sun, "ShuffleNet V2: Practical Guidelines for Efficient CNN Architecture Design," in Proc. of ECCV, 2018.
[11] H. Gao, Z. Wang, and S. Ji, "ChannelNets: Compact and Efficient Convolutional Neural Networks via Channel-Wise Convolutions", in Proc. of NIPS, 2018.
[12] G. Huang, S. Liu, L. Maaten, and K. Weinberger, "CondenseNet: An Efficient DenseNet using Learned Group Convolutions," in Proc. of CVPR, 2018.
[13] M. Sandler, et al., "MobileNetV2: Inverted Residuals and Linear Bottlenecks," in Proc. of CVPR, 2018.
[14] G. Xie, J. Wang, T. Zhang, J. Lai, R. Hong, and G. Qi, "IGCV2: Interleaved Structured Sparse Convolutional Neural Networks, in Proc. of CVPR, 2018.
56

畳み込みの分解
[15] T. Zhang, G. Qi, B. Xiao, and J. Wang, "Interleaved group convolutions for deep neural networks," in Proc. of ICCV, 2017.
[16] Z. Qin, Z. Zhang, X. Chen, and Y. Peng, "FD-MobileNet: Improved MobileNet with a Fast Downsampling Strategy," in Proc. of ICIP, 2018.
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