The Contemporary World: Globalization of World Politics

THE CONTEMPORARY
WORLD
THE GLOBALIZATION OF WORLD POLITICS
JOHN BAYLIS, STEVE SMITH & PARTICIA OWENS
Prepared by: ROMMEL R. REGALA, Ph.D.
Catanduanes State University

INTRODUCTION
From International Politics to World Politics

CHAPTER 1: GLOBALIZATION AND GLOBAL POLITICS
• Globalization involves:
• A stretching of social, political, and economic activities across political frontiers.
• A growing magnitude of interconnectedness in almost every sphere of social
existence.
• An accelerating pace of global interactions and processes associated with a
deepening enmeshment of the local and the global.
• Globalization is considered a historical process of fast-growing interconnectedness
in every sphere of social, political and economic life, across political and national
frontiers.

• In the first wave, the age of discovery (1450-1850), globalization was decisively
shaped by European expansion and conquest.
• Globalization in the age of discovery was a result of European expansion and
conquest, which then determined the order of the world system.

• The second wave (1850-1945) evidenced a major expansion in the spread and
entrenchment of European empires.
• The second wave of globalization was characterized by the attempts of European
empires to enlarge their territories while at the same time securing them from
external interference.

• Asymmetrical globalization is the way in which contemporary globalization is
unequally experienced across the world and amongst different social groups.
• The concept of asymmetrical globalization describes the unequal effects of
globalization on different parts of the world and among different social groups
leading to a distinctive pattern of inclusion in and exclusion from the global system.

• The disaggregated state is the tendency for states to become increasingly
fragmented actors in global politics as every part of the government machine
becomes entangled with its foreign counterparts and others in dealing with global
issues through proliferating transgovernmental and global policy networks.
• In a disaggregated state, the constituent agencies increasingly interact with their
counterparts abroad, international agencies and NGOs in the management of
common and global affairs. The image of a foreign-domestic policy divide is
replaced by formal and informal transgovernmental networks.

• Skeptical accounts of globalization dismiss its significance because they argue that:
• By comparison with the period 1870 to 1914, the world is now less globalized
economically, politically and culturally.
• The vast bulk of international economic and political activity is concentrated
within the group of OECD states.
• Globalization is at best a self-serving myth or ideology which reinforces
Western and particularly US hegemony in world politics.
• Skeptical accounts assume that globalization and interdependence have been
highly exaggerated, or even are myths to conceal that the world is much more
regionalized and that globalization favors OECD states and the West in general.

• State autonomy is challenged in the "post-Westphalian" order because in a more
interdependent world, national governments are forced to engage in extensive
multilateral collaboration and co-operation simply to achieve domestic objectives.
• The capacity for self-governance of the state is compromised by new types of
problems that states cannot solve on their own. The authority to do so is
increasingly shared between the local, national, regional and global level.

• Time-space compression is the technologically induced erosion of distance and
time, which gives the appearance of a world that is, in communication terms,
shrinking.
• The progress in communication technologies allows interaction across the world
immediately and without time constraints.

• The international Convention on the Elimination of Child Labor was the product of
a complex politics involving public and private actors from trade unions, industrial
associations, humanitarian groups, governments, and legal experts.
• The Convention is one example for complex political coordination among
governmental, intergovernmental and non-state actors - both public and private -
in order to realize common purposes through the making of global rules.

• The "Post-Westphalian Order" is characterized by:
• The sovereign power and authority of national government - the entitlement of states to rule
within their own territorial space - being transformed but not necessarily eroded.
• A real dilemma: in return for more effective public policy and meeting their citizens’ demands,
whether in relation to the drugs trade or employment, states’ capacity for self-governance -
that is state autonomy - is compromised.
• The emergence of a new geography of political organization and political power, which
transcends territories and borders.
• The main three elements of the Westphalian order - sovereignty, state authority
and territoriality - are affected by the consequences of globalization. Sovereignty
is increasingly shared among national, regional and global actors; state authority
is diminished by new types of transnational problems and consequently, a strict
principle of territoriality cannot be maintained.

CHAPTER 2: THE RISE OF MODERN INTERNATIONAL ORDER
• 'International orders' refers to regularized practices of exchange among discrete
political units.
• International orders are regularized practices of exchange among discrete
political units, which recognize each other to be independent. International orders
have existed ever since political units began to interact on a regular basis, whether
through trade, diplomacy or the exchange of ideas. In this sense, world history has
seen a great many regional international orders.

• International society is regulated by diplomacy, law, and the balance of power.
• The three regulating mechanisms of international society are diplomacy,
international law, and the balance of power.

• Elements of international society can be found in Medieval Christian Europe,
Medieval Islam, and Ancient China.
• Ancient China, India, Rome, and both Christian and Islamic medieval civilization
bear evidence of international society.

• The Catholic Church helped constitute the normative basis of international society.
• The Catholic Church, a form of supranational authority, contributed to both the
normative basis of international society, and in particular, just war theory.

• Both exploration and colonization of the New World and The Protestant
Reformation contributed to the emergence of international society.
• The exploration of the New World led to an interest in a political entity's relations
beyond its borders, while the Protestant Reformation implicitly strengthened the
principle of sovereign equality by challenging Catholicism's claim to supreme
authority.

• Skeptical accounts of international society believe both that it is a rhetorical cover
for self-serving powerful states and argue that it is unable to cope with
globalization.
• Skeptical accounts suggest both that international society is a rhetorical justification
of great power politics, and that globalization poses significant challenges to the
order of international society.

• Challenges to international society posed directly by globalization:
• Global warming.
• American power.
• Dissolution of the bonds of political community.
• The international society has endured for years in spite of interstate war. New
challenges involve civil conflict, environmental strain, American hyperpower, and
changing forms of political community and identity; all of these challenge the
assumption of sovereign equality upon which international society is founded.
Interstate war is not a challenge to international society posed directly by
globalization.

• Organized hypocrisy is a term coined by political scientist Stephen Krasner to
refer to sovereignty, which is a caution against idealistic conceptions of
international society or the legal fiction masking power relations between states.
• Organized Hypocrisy, the title of a 1999 book by Stephen Krasner, suggests that
sovereignty is a norm honored more in the breach than in the observance, and
cautions against assuming that all states will always honor the precepts of
international society.

• The French and American Revolutions created new challenges to international
society by raising the issue of nationalism while also leading to the creation of the
Concert of Europe.
• The American (1776) and French (1789) Revolutions brought new states and the
concept of nationalism to the forefront of inter-state relations, and led to the
creation of the Concert of Europe after the Napoleonic Wars.

• Hierarchical, Hegemonic, and Imperial offers an alternative to international society
as a way of organizing world politics.
• International society is distinguished from the above three ways of ordering the
world system by the principle of sovereign equality.

CHAPTER 3: INTERNATIONAL HISTORY, 1900-1999
• Historian A.J.P. Taylor argued that Hitler was no different from other German
political leaders.
• In Origins of the Second World War, A.J.P. Taylor argued that Hitler was no
different from the German political leaders who had preceded him. Fritz Fischer
argued in Germany’s Aims in the First World War that the war was caused by the
international political needs of an autocratic elite.

• Under a structural explanation, the central problem of European security in the
first half of the twentieth century was the rise of a united Germany.
• The increase in German power post-unification was seen as the central security
problem that the Versailles settlement failed to solve. Although nationalism and
economic crisis were both important issues, the structural explanation focuses on the
effects of Germany's rise.

• The First World War led to the dissolution of the Russian empire.
• Along with the German, Austro-Hungarian, and Ottoman Empires, the Russian
empire ended with the First World War.

• Decolonization was partially determined by local or tribal factors, by the attitudes
of former colonizing powers, and was sometimes replaced by superpower
involvement.
• Decolonization varied across regions and former imperial powers, and was also
partially determined by factors in the area undergoing decolonization as well as
the level of involvement of the new superpowers.

• The Warsaw Pact was the Eastern bloc's answer to NATO and gained impetus
after the 1954 rearmament of West Germany.
• The North Atlantic Treaty Alliance (NATO) was the United States' military
commitment to its European allies. Signed in 1949, it was followed in 1955 by the
Warsaw Pact, which was largely prompted by the rearmament of the Federal
Republic of Germany.

• Efforts to achieve more cooperative relations between the Western and Communist
countries:
• Détente with the USSR.
• Rapprochement with China.
• German Ostpolitik.
• Détente with the USSR and rapprochement with China were both efforts by the
United States to achieve more cooperative relations with Communist states in the
1970's. The same can be said of West Germany's Ostpolitik.

• The 'second cold war‘ followed the election of Ronal Reagan and described a
confrontational period in the late 1980s.
• After the election of President Ronald Reagan in 1980, relations between the
superpowers entered a more conflictual phase, which has since been dubbed the
"second cold war".

• The USSR, the US, and Britain (in order) were the first three states to achieve
nuclear capability.
• The United States dropped the first atomic bomb in 1945; the USSR tested in
1949, and the British followed with a test off the Australian coast in 1952.

• The Sinatra doctrine was a catchphrase for foreign policy under Gorbachev.
• The Sinatra doctrine referred to Gorbachev's policy toward Eastern Europe. It
replaced the Brezhnev doctrine and was paired with domestic policies of glasnost
(openness) and perestroika (restructuring).

• Nuclear weapons crises during the cold war included the following:
• Cuba (1962)
• Able Archer (1983)
• The Arab Israeli War (1979)
• In addition to the Berlin Crisis of 1961, these crises all ran a significant risk of
escalation to nuclear war, though how close the superpowers came to war is still
debated today.

CHAPTER 4: FROM THE END OF THE COLD WAR TO A NEW
GLOBAL ORDER
• The 'unipolar moment‘ refers to US primacy since 1989.
• The 'unipolar moment' is the position in which the United States finds itself after the
end of the cold war. Although scholars debate whether multipolarity or another
international system is emerging, most believe that the US is still a global
hegemon.

GLOBAL ORDER
• Explanations for the end of the cold war include:
• Gorbachev and Reagan's leadership.
• The relative economic strength of the United States.
• The ideological attractiveness of Western democracy and capitalism.
• There is no clear consensus on the causes of the cold war; all three explanations
have been advanced.

GLOBAL ORDER
• Globalization in the post-cold war world became a defining term of international
discourse and had its extent contested by scholars such as David Held and Martin
Wolf.
• Globalization, though its precise meaning was contested, became the key discourse
of governments in the post-cold war world.

GLOBAL ORDER
• US primacy is a key feature of and a challenge in the post-cold war order.
• Very few people predicted US primacy, but it has become a defining feature of
the post-Cold-War world and as such is debated hotly inside and outside the
United States. 9/11 gave direction to a formerly drifting US foreign policy.

GLOBAL ORDER
• Europe:
• Has struggled to reconcile deepening integration with fragmentation, such as
that in the former Yugoslavia.
• Is debating the extent and depth of a "European foreign and security policy"
but remains uncertain of their future.
• Emphasizes international institutions.
• Although Europe benefited immensely from the end of the cold war, it continues to
struggle with deepening integration and civil conflict on its borders, the extent to
which it should pursue a collective foreign policy, and the role of international
institutions.

GLOBAL ORDER
• Russian President Vladimir Putin has nationalized Russian economic assets.
• Among other shifts in an authoritarian, assertive direction, Putin has brought
economic assets back under state control.

GLOBAL ORDER
• Challenges facing East Asia include North Korea's nuclear program and
outstanding territorial disputes.
• The North Korean nuclear program, territorial disputes between many of the major
powers, and the "rise of China" are examples of challenges facing East Asia
today.

GLOBAL ORDER
• The "rise of China“:
• Is an issue considered by every region of the world today.
• Is unequivocally a cause for optimism.
• Is characterized by a shift toward economic autarky.
• Regions around the world, from Europe to Africa, have had to incorporate China
into their foreign policy considerations as China has become more and more of an
international and economic player. However, realist theory predicts that the rise of
China is likely to provoke international conflict.

GLOBAL ORDER
• Inequality:
• Creates new challenges in terms of domestic social stability, migration, and
political violence.
• Has become more important as globalization empowers sub-state actors.
• Has caused scholars to reconsider the helpfulness of the term "Third World".
• Although inequality has always been present, the end of the cold war led scholars
to reconsider the utility of the term "Third World" to characterize poor and still-
developing areas. It has led to new challenges posed by the empowerment of sub-
state actors, fluctuations in domestic social stability, increased migration, and
possible political violence against the West.

GLOBAL ORDER
• George W. Bush's foreign policy:
• Argued that old methods of dealing with contemporary challenges were
obsolete and ineffective.
• Changed direction sharply after 9/11.
• Led to a controversial war in Iraq whose reasons and effects are still being
highly debated.
• After 9/11 American foreign policy took a sharp turn: military interventions in
both Iraq and Afghanistan were based on the premise that deterrence and the
balance of power were inadequate mechanisms by which to confront the threat
posed by transnational Islamic terrorism.

CHAPTER 5: RISING POWERS & THE EMERGING GLOBAL ORDER
• What is "unipolarity"?
• Unipolarity denotes the period of time after the post-cold war era, in which the US emerged
as the sole superpower. It describes the unrivalled extent and many dimensions of US power.
• Unipolartiy refers to the dense set of trans-Atlantic and trans-Pacific relations and alliance
systems.
• Unipolarity was marked by Western-dominated institutions and multilateral organizations
originally created in the wake of the Second World War.
• Unipolarity denotes the period of time after the post-cold war era, in which the US
emerged as the sole superpower. It was manifest in the dense set of trans-Atlantic
and trans-Pacific relations and alliance systems, established, in the main, through
U.S. initiative. Contemporarily, there has been much debate as to whether or not
unipolarity persists or whether we have now entered a period of multipolarity.

• Soft power is getting others to agree with you without using coercive force.
• Soft power is distinguished from hard, coercive power. In contrast to the former,
soft power refers to the power of attraction, of getting others to emulate your own
society and its values.

• An example of how emerging powers have impacted the international governance
system:
• Brazil and India have joined the US and the EU as members of the WTO inner
negotiating circle.
• While there has been a lot of discussion about reforming the UN Security Council,
and possibly include new permanent members, it has so far failed to generate any
actual change. In the WTO, "major", countries, such as those in the "new quad"
wield less formal power, and groups can be formed more easily, and based on
existing verities. This illustrates the growing importance of the emerging powers,
but also how entrenched the more formalized governance systems are.

• Waiving special concessions based on their old developing country status is an
example of a nation trying to "graduate" from the developing world category.
• It has been suggested that if a nation wants truly to join non-developing countries
as a full and accepted peer; it needs to forego the special privileges that came
with its old status as a somehow subordinate power. This will likely be a test of the
resolve of such an ambition, as short-term pain must be weighed against less
tangible longer-term legitimacy and peer recognition.

• The Washington Consensus is a set of policy aims thought, by its promoters, to
maximize global welfare, by pushing for (among other things) market
liberalization and a reduced role for the state.
• The notion is that a set of preferences how to maximize global welfare was
gradually turned into a "standardized" package of policy recommendations
adopted and promoted by influential Washingtonites and others. The influence of
these policy shapers meant that the resulting "policy recipes" were in turn pushed
by international - but Washington-based - institutions such as the International
Monetary Fund and the World Bank. Critics have argued that this in fact meant the
forced adoption of neo-liberal ideas by countries in need of assistance (and thus
less able to resist any reciprocal demands).

• Creating new formal organizations (such as the G20) to organize countries is an
example of increased "concert diplomacy“.
• Concert diplomacy is nothing new, but a resurgence of the idea that great powers
need to collaborate to organize norms of international interaction, and thus the
very order of international society. Organizations such as the G20 provide venues
for recurring talks about such issues, and the realization that more than just a
handful of states (compare the veto-wielding powers in the UN Security Council)
are in fact required to partake in these processes.

• No reform(s) have been implemented during the tenure of General Kofi Annan as
Secretary despite of making it a priority to reform the United Nations, including the
Security Council.
• The structure of the UN Security Council is based on the political realities of the late
1940s. Reform and modernization of its governance system have been identified by
numerous actors, including Annan and Ban Ki-Moon, as crucial to reflect a changing
world, and so keep the organization relevant. Suggestions have included the
expansion of the number of permanent members, the expansion of the number of non-
permanent members or both. Because change requires the agreement of at least two-
thirds of UN members and all the five veto-wielding powers, it has so far proved
impossible to reach a consensus. Problems are compounded by conflicting demands by
hitherto "excluded" (i.e. non-permanent members) states.

• The BASIC is a group of developing countries (Brazil, South Africa, India and
China) that have in some cases acted in unison to strengthen their negotiation
position vis-a-vis traditionally strong parties such as the United States.
• The growing willingness of geographically far-flung emerging powers to set up
separate venues to explore and consolidate positions, and then act in unison to
push a common agenda more forcefully is challenging entrenched international
negotiating norms and procedures - in some cases forcing a sobering revision of
presumed influence of these nations. BASIC like IBSA and the BRICS developed out
of the dissatisfaction of the developing world with globalization and indicated a
greater willingness among these nations to act in pursuit of its collective interests
and against the developed world

• Evidence that the United States has primarily been a status quo power includes the
statement is fundamentally flawed: the United States has primarily been a
revisionist power.
• The United States has often tried actively to promote values and modes of
governance that it subscribes to, with the implicit or explicit aim to mold other
nations in its own image. Such activism also has an indirect component where
guiding norms are embedded in international organizations which will then in turn
promote them elsewhere in the world - sometimes to the chagrin of regimes that
do not naturally endorse such values. In this sense, the US is not so much interested
in the sustenance of the contemporary mode of conduct across the world, as it is in
global reformism.

• The "liberal global order“ is a 1990s assumption that liberal values, as defined
and promoted by the United States, were "winning", leading to a more tranquil
world.
• In the 1990s, there was a sense that the United States would be - for the
foreseeable future - be threatened by any competing powers, and that the
Western order was working. Weaker states would have to submit, and the liberal
order would gradually expand. The predominance of this view in part obscured
competing claims, and third world dissatisfaction with the envisaged global order.
The rise of emerging powers, and their growing influence in world affairs have
further undermined the idea that a global liberal order is achievable.

PART 2
Structures and Processes

CHAPTER 6: WAR AND WORLD POLITICS
• Traditional view of state-to-state war:
• Inter-state war may be becoming increasingly obsolete.
• Inter-state war is rooted in our understanding of a Westphalian state system.
• Traditional understandings of interstate war argue that it is based on a
Westphalian state system which assumes national sovereignty, and that the
prevalence of non-state actors and civil conflict, coupled with processes of
globalization, render interstate war less likely.

• Hedley Bull defined war as an "organized violence carried on by political units
against each other“.
• This definition was propagated by English school theorist Hedley Bull in 1977.

• "War made the state, and the state made war."
• It comes from the work of historical sociologist Charles Tilly.
• Charles Tilly examined the effect of war as a force both requiring and creating
large-scale political organization in Europe during the era 1000-2000 A.D.

• The characteristics of the Revolution in Military Affairs (RMA):
• It emphasizes the role of advances in military technology as bringing about
radical change in the character of war
• It neglects the complex political dimensions of warfare.
• The Revolution in Military Affairs focused on the effect of superior technological
and doctrinal development on modern warfare, and became prominent in the
1990's. However, critics charge that it omits discussion of war as a political
struggle and thereby grossly oversimplifies our understanding.

• ‘War's character has changed, though its nature has not’ is a major theme of this
chapter.
• As the title of the chapter indicates, the form, or character, of war has changed to
reflect modern conditions, but the nature of warfare, as organized violence
between political units, remains unchanged.

• State autonomy challenged in the "post-Westphalian" order because:
• Identity politics are increasingly important.
• Economic insecurity provokes civil conflict.
• Technological development and 'virtual war' have enabled Western
intervention.
• Today, economic insecurity exacerbated by interdependence and the rising
importance of identity politics have created civil conflict which challenges the
autonomy of the state. This is especially true since 'virtual' high-tech war has
facilitated Western involvement in these conflicts.

• The following best describes Clausewitz's philosophy of war:
• War always involves passion, in the motives for fighting and in the enmities that
inspire and sustain killing in war.
• War is a sphere of sheer chance. Anything can happen.
• War involves reason. Political leaders and military staffs seek to achieve
objectives through war.
• Clausewitz's philosophy of war is premised on his trinities: passion, chance, and
politics. These, he argued, come together in varying combinations in any given
historical instance of war.

• Roles that have been changed by contemporary warfare:
• The media.
• Women.
• Children.
• Post-modern war is characterized by increased media transparency, while 'new
wars' often involve child soldiers and women as combatants, in comparison to
traditional understandings of combatants as uniformed men.

• 'New wars' are supported by these types of activities:
• Hostage-taking.
• Illegal trafficking of diamonds and drugs.
• Arms smuggling across weakly enforced borders.
• Kaldor characterizes 'new wars' as those taking place in failed or near-failed
states where the government lacks authority or ability to enforce the state's
monopoly on violence; borders are therefore permeable and a range of criminal
activities occur to facilitate the combatants' ability to conduct conflict.

• 'Total war‘ means that a state or other political entity is fighting for its existence.
• A total war occurs when a state or other political entity is fighting for its existence.
In the Second World War, the Allies demanded unconditional surrender from Nazi
Germany. The war ended Adolf Hitler's regime, the Third Reich. Note that a war
can be limited for one participant, and total for another.

CHAPTER 7: INTERNATIONAL AND GLOBAL SECURITY
• National security is a security largely defined in militarized terms.
• "National security" was the dominant conceptualization of security during the Cold
War. Thinking about national security during this time was mainly defined in
militarized terms.

• “Uncertainty" so crucial to the realist account of security because it leads to lack of
trust in the international system.
• Uncertainty implies that states can never be sure of the intentions of their
neighbors and therefore they must always be on their guard. Concepts closely
linked to realist understandings of uncertainty are the security dilemma and arms
race.

• Security dilemma is a structural notion in which self-help attempts of states to look
after their security needs, tend regardless of intention to lead to a rise in
insecurity.
• The "security dilemma" is a constant feature of international politics. Due to
anarchy and uncertainty, any attempt by a state to increase its security, regardless
of its intentions, has to be interpreted by other states as a threat to their security.
The total effect is a dynamic action-reaction which enhances insecurity.

• The realist pessimist position is based upon the assumptions about the way the
international system works:
• The international system is anarchic.
• States that are claiming sovereignty will inevitably develop offensive military
capabilities to defend themselves and extend their power.
• States will want to maintain their independence and sovereignty and therefore
survival will be the driving force influencing their behavior.
• The realist pessimist view stems from Hobbes, Machiavelli, and Rousseau viewing
the international system as a brutal arena in which states seek to further their own
security at the expense of those around them. Waltz and Mearsheimer also take
this stance.

• “Institutionalized cooperation“:
• Cooperation through international institutions as an approach to international
security.
• Cooperation through institutions to creating mature anarchy
• The term "institutionalized cooperation" points out the role institutions play in
enhancing security. Cooperation through international institutions can develop into
more durable and stable security systems and thus opens up the opportunity to
achieve greater overall international security.

• How does democratic peace theory challenge realism?
• It places importance on internal norms and institutions.
• It challenges realist occupation with balance of power.
• It argues that war is a function of a state being liberal or not.
• Democratic peace theory argues that internal norms and institutions of liberal
democracy do make a difference in international politics. The balance-of-power
mechanism thus is not a general feature of inter-state relations; the actual
behavior of a state in the system is a function of its regime type.

• “Security community“ is a group of people who become integrated and within a
territory develop a sense of community.
• Deutsch's concept of "security communities" points to the possibility that a group of
people within a territory, via the development of institutions and common practices,
can develop a sense of community that enhances the belief that common social
problems must and can be resolved by processes of peaceful change.

• Walter Lippmann said:
• "A nation is secure to the extent to which it is not in danger of having to
sacrifice core values if it wishes to avoid war, and is able, if challenged, to
maintain them by victory in such a war“.
• Walter Lippmann offered this as his definition of national security. It is only one of
several notions of the concept of 'security'.

• The problems with collective security:
• States find it difficult to distinguish between victim and aggressor in
international conflicts.
• It assumes that all aggression is wrong.
• Historical enmity or friendship complicates the working of the system.
• According to J. Mearsheimer, the idea of collective security is problematic as
(among other reasons) states find it difficult to distinguish between aggressor and
the victim in international conflicts; it considers all aggression to be wrong whereas
there may be circumstances where its use is necessary against a threatening
neighbor and it underestimates the effects of historical enmity.

• Post-modernists view realism as:
• A central problem of international security because it is the dominant discourse
of power and rule.
• A statist ideology out of touch with the reality of globalization.
• Unable to take into consideration the enormous complexity and indeterminacy
of human behavior across its cultural, religious and historical roots.
• Realism as the dominant discourse in international politics has provided an image
of the world that encourages behavior that helps to bring about war. Thus, Realism
cannot grasp the globalizing tendencies in world politics that is part of the
complexity and indeterminacy of human life.

CHAPTER 8: GLOBAL POLITICAL ECONOMY
• Increased trade barriers and devalued currencies resulted from the Great
Depression.
• While each of the countries involved in the Great Depression believed that by
increasing trade barriers and devaluating currencies it could manage to keep its
economy afloat, the Great Depression demonstrated that this did not work.

• The main role of the IMF is to ensure a stable exchange rate regime and provide
emergency assistance to countries facing crises in balance of payments.
• The IMF was created to promote international monetary cooperation and resolve
the inter-war problems of the Great Depression. The main goal of IMF is to
achieve stable exchange rates and one of its main tools is the provision of
emergency assistance to countries facing serious payment challenges.

• The main role of the World Bank is to assist countries in development.
• What we now call the World Bank started as the International Bank for
Reconstruction and Development and has since become the world's largest source
of development assistance, providing nearly $16 billion in loans annually.

• The "Washington Consensus“ is the ten point guideline to liberal economic reform
for development around the world.
• The term "Washington consensus" originally referred to a set of policy advice on
liberal economic reform being given by Washington-based institutions to Latin
America. Nowadays the term is often used interchangeably with the phrase
American "neoliberal policies."

• States undertake protectionist measures to keep competitive foreign goods from
flooding the market.
• When using protectionist measures, states try to "shield" their internal production,
and hence domestic business and employment, from international competition.

• Structural adjustment involve:
• Measures to reduce inflation.
• Measures to curb government expenditure.
• Deregulation.
• The term "structural adjustment" is usually used when referring to the IMF's policy
towards indebted countries. Structural adjustments mean immediate measures to
reduce inflation and, more broadly, mean the correction of the role of the
government in the economy.

• The nationalist/realist view of International Political Economy (IPE):
• The world economy is where states seek to maximize their wealth and
independence relative to other states.
• The nationalist/realist tradition stands in stark contrast to a liberal perception. As
mercantilists share the presumptions of realists in international politics, states will
attempt to ensure their self-sufficiency and hence their relative strength and power
in key strategic industries and commodities.

• Dependency Theory refers to economic activity in the richer countries that often
leads to serious economic problems in the poorer countries.
• Dependency Theory is part of the Marxist tradition in IPE and has traditionally
focused on Latin America to explain how underdevelopment and poverty is caused
by economic, social and political structures in the core countries and the type of
exchange this is generating.

• The constructivist approach pays attention to how states and other actors construct
their preferences, highlighting the role of identities, beliefs, tradition and values.
• The constructivist approach focuses on the role of historical and sociological factors
and examines the beliefs, roles, traditions, ideologies and patterns of influence
that shape preferences and behavior of states and other actors.

• Under what conditions will states create international institutions?
• It depends on the school of thought.
• Competing accounts of institutions will make different statements about the
possibility and probability of cooperative behavior and international institution
building. For example, institutionalism emphases the role of institutions in achieving
absolute gains, whereas realists argue that institutions will only be created when
dominant states wish to do so.

CHAPTER 9: GENDER IN WORLD POLITICS
• “Emancipatory knowledge“ is a knowledge that will lead to changes in favor of a
normative ideal, such as gender equality.
• Much feminist theory is based on the idea of emancipation - the belief in the
capacity of knowledge to drive positive normative change - specifically related to
the improvement of women's lives worldwide.

• The myth of protection:
• It characterizes men as protectors and women as protected.
• It is used to justify and shape national security policies.
• It is a myth challenged by changing gender roles in contemporary warfare.
• The protection myth is a popular assumption that men fight wars to protect the
vulnerable, including women and children, and has been used to justify national
security efforts. However, changing roles of women as both the objects of violence
in warfare and in terms of increased participation as combatants has prompted
some revision of this myth.

• The gendered division of labor is based on gender-structured conceptions of
appropriate work.
• The gendered division of labor results in women doing a high proportion of unpaid
labor in the home, while men work outside for wages; it creates a "double burden"
for women who seek to work outside the home and has reinforced women's lower
pay in the global economy.

• The idea of the gender-sensitive lens came from the feminist theorists: Peterson and
Runyan.
• Various "lenses" help us focus our attention and formulate questions with regard to
world politics. A gender-specific lens, as proposed by Peterson and Runyan, helps
us see how gender structures world politics.

• The gendering of world politics is seen in the following areas:
• Prostitution and human trafficking.
• Civil wars and refugee flows.
• Trade and development.
• In addition to many other areas of world politics, gender shapes the three named
above by defining roles and framing debates.

• Intersectionality describes:
• Overlapping global structures of inequality
• A concept developed by feminists to analyze how sex and gender play out in
the everyday lives of women across the globe
• The intertwining of economic and social status of women
• Intersectionality describes overlapping global structures of inequality, which define
the everyday lives of people simultaneously. This means that gender is often found
alongside other forms of oppression/domination. In this sense, the experience of
gender domination is always located, while gender becomes a global
phenomenon.

• Gender theorists see the following developments as progress (but it depends on
which gender theory you pick):
• The establishment of the UN Gender Development Index.
• The election of US Speaker Nancy Pelosi.
• The incorporation of "gender mainstreaming" into policy discourse.
• Although all of these developments have positively influenced women around the
world, different theorists would have different views of the extent of this
'progress'. For example, postcolonial feminists would argue for diversifying the
focus of gender scholarship to include more women outside the West.

• The impact of globalization for women:
• It has created new areas for women's advancement.
• It has led to new challenges and dangers for women.
• It has not changed the fundamental inequality of gender relationships in the
world enough.
• Globalization has created new opportunities as well as challenges for women, but
most feminists would agree that the gender structure of world politics remains
fundamentally unequal and that continuing advocacy for change is needed.

• The feminized labor refers to less desirable or secure work, which has come to be
associated with specific 'female' qualities.
• Feminized labor refers to less desirable or secure work, which has come to be
associated with specific 'female' qualities. This is often accompanied with lesser
liberties and freedoms and higher violations of human rights at the work place.

• “Double burden“:
• It refers to the disproportionate share of housework done by women.
• It dates to the 17th century.
• It is rooted in gendered conceptions of the distinction between public and
private life.
• The "double burden' arose in the 17th century and refers to the situation in which
women were restricted to low-paying production or service industries and also
responsible for significant amounts of unpaid domestic labor.

CHAPTER 10: RACE IN WORLD POLITICS
• 'White privilege‘ refers to the social advantages that accrue to white persons
• The legal concept of 'white privilege' refers to the social advantages that accrue
to white persons due to their transparent and fundamentally unquestioned
competence and humanity. It is examined by 'whiteness studies', where scholars
now seek to explain how the (often unspoken) privileges enjoyed by white persons
depend upon (often violent) processes of exclusion. Answers a. and c. refer to the
concept of 'whiteness'. While this is, of course, related to notions of 'white
privilege' it does not define it directly.

• The cultural calculus of racism describes the racial ordering of children of mixed
race.
• The cultural calculus came out of the theological debate over indigenous peoples. It
was used to adjudicate the cultural competencies of a group whose heritage lay
outside of the 'old' Biblical world, and the degree to which these competencies -
the ability to reason especially - allowed them to enjoy basic protections as human
beings.

• A 'Mulatto' described the cross between white and negro in the official color
hierarchies of the French Caribbean colony of St. Dominque.

• Karl Marx argues that capitalism was premised on the 'turning of Africa into a
warren for the commercial hunting of black-skins‘.
• It was Karl Marx who argued that capitalism was premised on the 'turning of
Africa into a warren for the commercial hunting of black-skins'. Indeed, this is
related to his more fundamental claim that capitalist economic development for
some/in some places requires the exploitation of others/other places.

• ‘Standard of civilization‘ is a hierarchical ordering of humanity, travelling through
savagery, barbarism and civilization, which was informed by enlightenment
thinkers in Europe.
• The 'standard of civilization' denoted hierarchical stages of humanity that
travelled through savagery, barbarism and finally civilization. It was developed in
Europe during the mid-19th century, but drew on enlightenment thinkers such as
Baron de Montesquieu.

• Distinctive characteristics of international legal arguments:
• They are limited to the scope of the legislation at hand.
• They are rhetorical as well as logical.
• International law is characterized by a peculiar language and practice of
justification or legal arguments. As interpretation plays a central role in
determining which rule applies, its meaning and the nature of the case at hand,
legal arguments are logical as well as rhetorical.

• In 1848 Algeria became a departement of the French Republic.
• In 1848, Algeria became a departement of the French republic. It was, therefore,
no longer a colony. Therefore while citizens of Algeria would have formerly
enjoyed equal rights to French citizens, when the French republic proposed
equality among all citizens, the culture of Algeria's indigenes (indigenous peoples)
was deemed too barbaric to be included in this equality.

• 'Scientific racism' was particularly prominent in the following era:
• Graeco-Roman antiquity.
• Age of the Enlightenment.
• The end of the 19th century.
• The beginning of the 20th century.
• 'Scientific racism' has a long-standing history in world politics. While some periods
of time were more prominently influenced by the cultural calculus of racism,
'scientific racism', premised on the biological calculus of racism, never completely
vanished. It is important to remember that 'scientific racism' is no more than a kind
of 'pseudoscience', though policy practices have had a real and devastating
impact on human lives.

• UNIA stands for Universal Negro Improvement Association.
• UNIA stands for Universal Negro Improvement Association. It collaborated with the
African Communities League and was founded in colonial Jamaica. Over the years
the organization developed branches in almost all continents and came to take on
outward trappings of a state, responding directly to the legacies of slavery,
colonialism and racism.

• 'New Racism‘:
• Denotes the claim that 'ethnic minorities' migrating to Europe culturally lack the institutional and
moral sophistication to integrate into advanced liberal-democratic societies.
• Is fundamental to development and security policies in the era of the Global War On Terror.
• Is present in the arguments of 'liberal peace' proponents, who claim that societies of the
Global South can only avoid poverty and conflict by adopting Western systems of
governance.
• The "New Stream" critique of Liberalism (also termed "Critical Legal Studies")
challenges the inherent Liberalism of modern international legal thought. The three
given propositions all refer to the claim that traditional legal theory is somewhere
stuck between "apology" (a rationalization of the status quo) and "utopia" (a
naive image that international law can civilize the world of states).

CHAPTER 11: INTERNATIONAL LAW
• "Jus ad bellum“ refers to laws of war governing when it is legal to use force or
wage war.
• The legal concept of "jus ad bellum" refers to those laws that determine when it is
legally permitted to use force or wage war. For instance, Chapter 7 of the UN
Charter restricts the legitimate use of force to international peace enforcement
actions authorized by the Security Council and individual and collective self-
defense.

• The following are necessary before a rule can be considered customary
international law:
• Evidence of general state practice.
• Evidence that states accept such practice as law.
• Evidence of general practice means that states habitually act in a manner
consistent with the rule. The Opinio juris claim implies that states are convinced that
they act according to a law when they carry out this practice. In that case,
customary law is binding upon all states.

• The three levels of institutions in modern international society:
• Constitutional institutions, fundamental institutions, and regimes.
• In modern international society, states have created these three levels of
institutions. Constitutional institutions are deep institutions, such as the principle of
sovereignty; fundamental institutions provide the basic rules and practices of
states; regimes (or issue-specific institutions) enact fundamental institutional
practices in particular realms.

• Distinctive characteristics of the modern institution of international law?
• A peculiar language of reasoning and argument.
• Multilateral form of legislation.
• A strong discourse of institutional autonomy.
• Contemporary international law is structured by the social and political conditions
of modernity and contains imprints of its revolution for social thought. Hence, the
language of reasoning and argument, a distinct multilateralism in lawmaking and
a discourse of institutional autonomy are some of its characterizing features.

• Ways that the nature and scope of international society have been conditioned by
international legal instruments:
• They have defined the nature of legitimate statehood.
• They have clarified the bounds of rightful state action, international and
domestic.
• Referring to the constitutional dimension of international law, some legal
instruments in history have been decisive in defining the nature and scope of
international society, such as the Treaties of Westphalia. This helped to define the
nature of legitimate statehood and the Charter of the United Nations, clarifying
the bounds of legitimate action towards other states.

• Distinctive characteristics of international legal arguments:
• They are limited to the scope of the legislation at hand.
• They are rhetorical as well as logical.
• International law is characterized by a particular language and practice of
justification or legal arguments. As interpretation plays a central role in
determining which rule applies, its meaning and the nature of the case at hand,
legal arguments are logical as well as rhetorical.

• Legal positivism:
• The idea that legal rules have legitimacy from their logical and practical
derivation from a fundamental "grundnorm".
• The idea that authority of legal rules comes from their status as the commands
of a sovereign authority.
• Legal positivism has dominated international legal theory in the 20th century. It
assumes the authority of the law lies in the legal rules themselves and thus can be
derived from either their status as commands of a sovereign authority or from their
derivation from a fundamental "grundnorm".

• Neo-liberal approach to international law is NOT limited through:
• By its inability to explain the development of law in areas where the self-
interests of states are unclear.
• By the failure to explain the origins of the modern system of international law.
• By its rejection of the idea that international law constitutes the identities and
interests of states.
• The neo-liberal approach emphasizes the domestic origin of state preferences as,
in turn, international law. Hence, its principal limitation is that it neglects the role
international law can play in constituting the domestic realm.

• New Haven School is also known as the policy approach.
• The New Haven School is one attempt to move beyond legal positivism in
international legal theory. It is a "policy-oriented" approach that assumes that the
authority of international law rests upon an empirically derived normative
philosophy of human justice.

• "New Stream" critique of Liberalism:
• The determinacy of international legal rules is questionable.
• The underlying logic of Liberalism in international law is incoherent.
• International legal thought operates within a confined intellectual structure.
• The "New Stream" critique of liberalism (also termed "Critical Legal Studies")
challenges the inherent liberalism of modern international legal thought. The three
given propositions all refer to the claim that traditional legal theory is somewhere
stuck between "apology" (a rationalization of the status quo) and "utopia" (a
naive image that international law can civilize the world of states).

CHAPTER 12: INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS IN
WORLD POLITICS
• International Organizations means a catch-all term, which is concerned with
intergovernmental collaboration in organizations.
• IO is a catch-all term, which includes any organization operating at the
international level, comprised of actors from at least three states. NGO's are only
sometimes included in such terminology.

WORLD POLITICS
• The first modern IO was the Central Commission for the Navigation of the Rhine
• The first modern IO, the Central Commission for the Navigation of the Rhine, was
established in 1815 to facilitate states' riparian relations (between land and
water).

WORLD POLITICS
• The creation of 'spin-off' IO's occurs through the process of Emanation.
• It is becoming more common for IOs to be established by approval of the members
of a pre-existing IO through a process known as emanation.

WORLD POLITICS
• The ILO is a tripartite decision-making body.
• The International Labor Organization (ILO) has a tripartite decision-making
process that gives equal voice to states, workers, and employers at its labor
conference, in its governing council, and in its office.

WORLD POLITICS
• Hybrid international organization refers to an international organization
comprised of both state and non-state actors.
• Hybrid international organizations have multi-level members, which illustrates the
complexity of public-private, multi-actor governance at the global level. An
example of a hybrid international organization is International Standard
Organization (ISO).

WORLD POLITICS
• PIU stand for Public International Unions.
• Many of the first modern IOs in the 19th century were 'apolitical' technical
organizations created to devise solutions to the differing standards among states,
known as Public International Unions (PIU).

WORLD POLITICS
• Multilateralism refers to the practice of coordinating national policies in groups of
three or more states.

WORLD POLITICS
• According to this chapter, an IO must be comprised of actors from at least three
states.

WORLD POLITICS
• The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) was established in
1951.
• In 1951 states created the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees
(UNHCR) to aid states in meeting their obligations under the Refugee Convention.
This is an example of the relevance of moral authority for the establishment of
IO's.

WORLD POLITICS
• 'Collective action' means that States can benefit from international cooperation.
• Collective action is a term most commonly associated with liberalism and neo-
liberalism. It denotes the idea that states can benefit from international
cooperation, in the context of the anarchic international system.

CHAPTER 13: THE UNITED NATIONS
• The main powers and duties of the UN Secretary-General:
• Provide support for peacekeeping activities.
• Carry out a number of research functions and quasi management functions.
• The Secretary-General as head of the Secretariat is responsible for the
substantive and administrative work as directed by the General Assembly and the
Security Council. Hence, support of peacekeeping activities and execution of
management functions are among his tasks, but not the approval of UN resolutions.

• The permanent members of the UN Security Council:
• France, Russia, USA, Britain, China.
• These five permanent members (France, Russia, USA, Britain and China) were seen
as the major powers when the UN was founded in 1945. They were granted veto
rights on the view that if big powers were not given a privileged position the UN
would not work.

• Specialized UN agencies refers to large institutions which are part of the UN system
that have their own constitutions, regularly assessed budgets, executive heads, and
assemblies of state representatives, not subject to the management of the central
system.
• Institutions such as the World Health Organization, the International Labor
Organization and the Food Agriculture Organization, even though part of the
large UN system, are self-contained constitutionally, financially, and politically.

• The current members of the Trusteeship Council are the permanent members of the
Security Council.
• The Trusteeship Council, which completed its work in 1994 with Palau attaining
independence, consists of the five permanent members of the Security Council.

• Classical peacekeeping involves the establishment of a UN force under UN
command to be placed between conflicting parties after a ceasefire.
• Classical peacekeeping mandates are based on Chapter VI of the UN Charter. It
involves the consent of the host state and can only take place after the negotiation
of a cease-fire. UN forces are placed between the parties to secure this ceasefire
and will only use weapons in self-defense.

• Main ways in which the UN became involved in maintaining peace and security in
the mid-1990s:
• By resisting aggression between states and attempting to resolve disputes
within states,
• By focusing on conditions within states, including economic, social, and political
conditions.
• In the 1990s, the UN started to address international conflicts as well as civil wars.
In doing so, the concept of international stability and peace was broadened to
issues of economic, social and political conditions within states.

• Argument against relaxing the principle of non-intervention:
• Because it may lead to military action by individual states without UN
approval.
• Even though the UN has been more ready to intervene within states, state
sovereignty and non-intervention remain important. Actions within the territory of
another without a clear UN authorization such as the US-led action against Iraq in
2003 could illustrate the danger of relaxing the principle of non-intervention.

• Country strategy notes:
• They are statements about the overall development process tailored to the
specific needs of individual countries, setting out targets, roles and priorities.
• They are country-specific strategies set out by the United Nations General
Assembly, later ratified by ECOSOC as part of the reform process to the UN.
• "Country Strategy Notes" are a result of attempts to professionalize and reform
the country level process of the UN economic and social programs. Specialized
agencies and programs develop a country-specific development strategy that sets
out a clear set of target, roles, and priorities.

• Human security refers to the security of individuals, including: their physical safety,
their economic and social well-being, respect for their dignity, and the protection
of their human rights.
• The concept of "human security" represents one attempt to broaden the traditional
concept of security by including social, political, economic and environmental
threats to the security of people.

• Why will further UN reform be necessary?
• Because of the heightened concern over terrorism and security threats from
non-state actors, the pervasiveness of inequality and injustice around the
world, and the predominance of United States military power, and the need
for regional representation in the UN Security Council.
• Changes in the nature of international politics and sovereign states and the rise of
new threats and challenges have to be reflected in changes and adaptation within
the UN system in order to improve the capacity of the UN of providing solutions to
those problems.

CHAPTER 14: NGOS IN WORLD POLITICS
• Transnational actors refers to any civil society actor from one country that has
relations with any actor from another country or an international organization.
• The term "transnational actors" is very broad and entails any actor involved in
international relations that are society-based rather than state-based.

• Problems with the state-centric approach to IR:
• There are different meanings to the term "state".
• There is a difference between nation and state.
• There is a lack of similarity between countries.
• "State" is a contested concept as there are many different and inconsistent
meanings to the term and the entities that we normally describe as states are in
themselves very different from each other. In particular differences between the
concepts of "nation" and "state" are often confused.

• The term 'nongovernmental organization' was first used by Dwight W. Morrow, the
US politician and diplomat, in 1919.

• "Nongovernmental organizations“:
• Can be initiated by states.
• Can be initiated by individuals.
• Is an umbrella term applied to a broad range of organizations that differ in
size, scope, motives, and functions.
• NGO is an umbrella term applied to a broad range of organizations that differ in
size, scope, motives, and functions. Despite its name, some NGOs have been
initiated by states rather than individuals

• A "network“ is any structure of communication for individuals and/or organizations
to exchange information, share experiences, or discuss political goals or tactics.
• Compared to an NGO, a network is a broader term comprising any form of
structured communication on an issue-area. It normally has a less permanent
organizational form, no formal leadership or declared membership and rather
focuses on exchange of information than on collective action.

• Partnerships of the kind that Oxfam maintains with the British department store
Mark and Spencer is an example of Public-Private Partnership.
• Partnerships of the kind that Oxfam maintains with the British department store
Mark and Spencer is an example of a public-private partnership. These are
governance arrangements intended for mutual benefit and to ensure adherence to
agreed rules.

• Hybrid INGO is formed when a government and an NGO form joint organizations
of which both can be members.
• The normal sharp distinction between inter-governmental organizations and
international non-governmental organizations does not apply for hybrid INGOs in
which governments work with NGOs. Among the most important hybrids are the
International Red Cross and the World Conservation Union.

• The term 'transnational NGO' make reference to the fact that national NGOs
increasingly mobilize at the international level.
• Transnational NGOs (TNGOs) has become a popular term to take account of the
fact that national NGOs increasingly mobilize at the international level. This means
that there is wider cooperation among TNGOs and other civil society actors, whose
interests TNGOs claim to represent.

• Policy domain refers to a set of political questions that are seen as being related.
• A policy domain may cover several issues as it comprises a set of political
questions that are linked by the political processes in an international organization,
e.g. financial policy is resolved in the IMF.

• 'Track-tow-diplomacy' refers to the idea that TNGOs have become an alternative
to the official negotiations of government diplomats.
• Track-two-diplomacy refers to the idea that TNGOs have become an alternative
to the official negotiations of government diplomats.

CHAPTER 15: REGIONALISM IN INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS
• Regionalism refers to development of institutionalized cooperation among states
and other actors on the basis of regional contiguity as a feature of global politics.
• Regionalism is, alongside globalization, one of the major trends in global politics. It
refers to the cooperation and integration on a regional (meaning continental)
scale.

• Supranationalism refers to a concept in integration theory that implies the creation
of common institutions having independent decision-making authority and thus the
ability to impose certain decisions and rules on member states.
• Supranational organizations have to be viewed in contrast to merely intra-
governmental international organizations in that they create an independent
decision-making authority to which governments delegate their decisions. This
allows organizations to impose certain decisions and rules on member states.

• European Court of Justice refers to the EU's highest court, ruling in disputed matters
of EU law between member states.
• The European Court of Justice is one of the organizations at the supranational level
of the European Union. It is the highest juridical authority for EU law and rules in
disputes between member states and institutions.

• Role of the European Commission:
• Initiating, administering and overseeing the implementation of EU policies and
legislation.
• The European Commission is the central supranational institution of the EU. It is the
'guardian of the treaties' and has the right to initiate, administer, and oversee EU
policies and legislation.

• Role of intergovernmental conferences:
• It is where representatives of national governments negotiate the legal
framework within which the EU institutions operate.
• The IGCs set the future direction of the European Union by negotiating the further
development and changes of the legal framework within which the EU institutions
operate. They are considered as the "great bargains" in the evolution of the EU.

• MERCOSUR is a Latin American regional institution.
• MERCOSUR (or "Common Market of the South") is the result of regional integration
efforts in Latin American. Its contracting states are Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay,
and Uruguay.

• What did the Single European Act of 1985 create?
• It removed all non-trade barriers to the mobility of goods, people, services
and capital.
• The Single European Act is the result of efforts to accomplish the project of the
"Single Market". It removed all non-trade barriers by establishing a general
freedom of movement for goods, people, services and capital throughout the EU.

• The 2001 Nice Treaty led to the expansion of majority voting.
• The Intergovernmental Conference in Nice aimed at dealing with the so called
"Amsterdam leftovers," which included an expansion of the majority voting in order
to make EU decision-making more efficient on the eve of enlargement.

• The 2004 Constitutional Treaty:
• Simplified the earlier treaties.
• Creates the post of President of the Council and EU Foreign Minister.
• Incorporates the Fundamental Rights Charter.
• The agreement to adopt a Constitutional Treaty is regarded as a step towards
greater political union. By simplifying earlier treaties, the creation of the post of a
President and the incorporation of the Fundamental Rights Charter, more
transparency and thus options for identification of the citizens with the EU should
be achieved.

• Dynamics of globalization that have been mirrored by the developments in the EU:
• EU integration has fed on and contributed to the global trend towards neo-
liberal economic policy.
• The trend towards greater social and cultural exchange has intensified.
• Despite the growth of an integrated market there is a limited integrated civil
society.
• From this perspective, the EU reflects global trends prevailing in the current
international economy. Trade barriers have been replaced by an open, internal
market, which in turn enhances not only economic but also social and cultural
exchange. These effects however have not entirely trickled to the level of
individuals and societies.

CHAPTER 16: ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES
• Traditional environmental issues include the following:
• Natural resource conservation.
• Pollution.
• Exploitation of maritime resources
• From the 1960s, environmental attention focused on conservation of natural
resources and pollution problems. Climate change gained increasing attention on
the agenda during the 1990s.

• The tragedy of the commons:
• It results from an inherent tension between collective and individual
responsibility.
• The tragedy of the commons is based on inherent conflict between individual and
collective interest and rationality in the use of property that is held in common; it is
mitigated by a high carrying capacity of the good in question and, in non-IR
models, is often solved through privatization and nationalization. However, this
solution is not always feasible for global political commons.

• Realist approaches to environmental politics:
• Realist theories focus on questions of state power and interest.
• Realist theories of environmental politics refer to questions of state power and
interest rather than the role of ideas, communities, or institutions.

• “Precautionary principle“:
• It is German in origin.
• It advocates for a higher standard for environmental action.
• It has become increasingly popular.
• The precautionary principle, originally coined by German policy-makers, states
that where there is a likelihood of environmental damage, banning an activity
should not require full and definitive scientific proof.

• Norms of environmental protection includes the following:
• The precautionary principle.
• The polluter pays.
• Prior informed consent.
• Various norms of increased environmental protection have been increasingly
disseminated throughout the international system, including the ones listed above.

• Capacity building involve:
• Arrangements for the transfer of funds, technology and expertise.
• Environmental projects in developed countries.
• Most environmental conventions now aim at 'capacity building' through
arrangements for the transfer of funds, technology and expertise to developing
countries, because most of their member-states simply lack the resources to
participate fully in international agreements.

• Influences of scientific knowledge:
• It is disseminated through epistemic communities.
• It has played a key role in the creation of framework conventions and control
protocols.
• It has particularly influenced the discourse of climate change.
• Scientific knowledge, disseminated through epistemic communities, has played a
key role in the creation of legal and institutional mechanisms to address
environmental issues, particularly climate change.

• Estimating the area of productive land or aqua system required to sustain a
population at its specified standard of living creates ecological footprint.
• Used to demonstrate the load placed upon the Earth's carrying capacity by
individuals or nations, an ecological footprint estimates the area of productive
land or aquasystem required to sustain a population at its specified standard of
living.

• The regime under which the production and trading of CFCs and other ozone
depleting substances would be progressively phased out is called the Montreal
Protocol.
• The Montreal Protocol negotiated a regime for the cessation of production of
CFC's and other substances responsible for depletion of the ozone layer.

• Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change:
• Was set up in 1988 under the auspices of WMO and UNEP.
• Focuses on climate science, impacts, and economic and social dimensions of
climate change.
• Has concluded that warming of the climate system is unequivocal.
• The IGCC began in 1988 and focuses on the consequences and causes of climate
change, which it concluded in February 2007 is undeniably taking place.

CHAPTER 17: TERRORISM AND GLOBALIZATION
• Which characteristic do globalization and terrorism share?
• Both are complex and open to subjective interpretation.
• Both are complicated, interdisciplinary phenomena that defy simple
characterization. Definitions of terrorism vary widely but all include the use of
violence as a main feature; beyond that, definitions involve, as for globalization,
different elements and value judgements.

• The realists suggested that the State has a monopoly on the legitimate use of
physical force.
• Realists suggest that the political violence used by terrorist groups is illegitimate on
the basis that states alone have a monopoly on the legitimate use of physical
force.

• Factors that lead to the birth of transnational terrorism:
• The expansion of air travel.
• The wider availability of televised news coverage.
• Broad common political and ideological interests.
• Expansion of air travel, wider news coverage and broad common political and
ideological interests allow terrorism to grow from a local and regional
phenomenon into an international threat.

• Elements composing bin Laden's central message:
• The defense of oppressed Muslims and the defeat of theological enemies of
Islam.
• The requirement for absolute religious piety and devotion.
• The defeat of the theological enemies of Islam.
• The message of Osama bin Laden combined a number of disparate elements such
as the restoration of the former greatness of Islam, the defense of oppressed
Muslims and the defeat of the theological enemies of Muslims, the requirement of
absolute religious piety and a rejection of secular materialism.

• Global Capitalism was the target of the symbolic attacks against the World Trade
Centre in 1993 and 2001.
• Economic aspects appear to be a fundamental motivating factor in the use of
violence to effect political change. Globalization is seen as a new form of
"economic imperialism" in which the "West" dominates and forces unfavorable
policies on the underdeveloped countries.

• Video recordings are useful to terrorist groups to recruit members.
• Video footage has been used to record the preparations or results of attacks and
helps to "inspire" potential recruits, but is also suitable to reach the widest
audience possible through global news outlets.

• Complications in the search for terrorists and terrorist cells:
• Increase in trade and commerce throughout the world.
• The use of cellular phone technology.
• The globalization of commerce.
• Added mobility and the reduced size and increased power of personal electronics
gives terrorists the capability to coordinate the activities of dispersed cells and
increased volumes of air travel and goods create control problems. Although one
of the main contemporary worries with regards to refugees is that terrorists are
able to transfer national borders more easily under this demise, increase legal
immigration should not complicated the search for terrorists and terrorist cells.

• Hollywood blockbuster films has provided inspiration for terrorist attacks by bin
Laden and Islamic Fundamentalists.
• This is another element of the interconnection between terrorism and the influence
of globalized media, which is suspected to be a motivating element behind the
fascination of Al Qaeda leaders with mass casualties and spectacular scenes of
destruction.

• Arguments over semantics and definitions has stalled action in the UN directed
towards terrorism.
• A rules-based attempt to fight terrorism within the framework of the UN has been
unsuccessful mainly because various debates in the General Assembly could not
resolve arguments over semantics and definitions.

• What can terrorists hope for in order to be successful in the future?
• Widespread uprising of the disaffected and oppressed, or collapse of the
USA.
• Globalization and a growing gap between the rich and poor might cause more
people to fight against suppression. Further, terrorism might become more
attractive if it actually reaches its goal through a collapse of their adversary after
an attack.

CHAPTER 18: PROLIFERATION OF WEAPONS
OF MASS DESTRUCTION
• Sagan's proliferation pessimism argument:
• Because of common biases, professional military organizations display organizational
behaviors that are likely to lead to deterrence failures and deliberate or accidental war.
• In the future, there will be a lack of positive constraining mechanisms of civilian control
while military biases may serve to encourage nuclear weapons use, especially during
crises. This is because future nuclear-armed states are likely to have military-run or weak
civilian governments.
• With his arguments, Sagan tries to counter the argument that the gradual spread
of nuclear weapons to additional states might be a good thing as nuclear
deterrence is the only way to maintain stability in conflict situations. Sagan argues
that the risk of deterrence failures is too big, especially in military-run and weak
civilian governments.

OF MASS DESTRUCTION
• Criticisms of the nuclear non-proliferation regime:
• It is not well-suited to the demands of the complex and potentially more
dangerous second nuclear age.
• It does not address the security motivation which leads states to acquire
nuclear weapons in first place.
• It is unable to alleviate the security dilemma that many states confront and it is
a discriminatory arrangement.
• Critics of the non-proliferation regime argue that it is a product of a bygone "first
nuclear age" (1945-1990). The second nuclear age presents different demands.
States face a different security dilemma and hence have some motivation to
acquire nuclear weapons due to the uncertainty of their status.

OF MASS DESTRUCTION
• The category "WMD" include:
• Atomic explosive weapons.
• Lethal chemical and biological weapons.
• The UN Commission introduced the concept of "weapon of mass destruction" for
Conventional Armaments in 1948 in order to distinguish nuclear weapons from
conventional forms. Any weapons should be included that have "characteristics
comparable in destructive effects to those of the atomic bomb", hence also
chemical and biological weapons.

OF MASS DESTRUCTION
• In 2001, the USA withdraw from the ABM treaty.
• The interest of developing a means to counter a possible ballistic missile attack on
US mainland, the so-called Ballistic Missile Defense, led to erosion and finally the
withdrawal of the USA from the ABM treaty on 13 December 2001.

OF MASS DESTRUCTION
• How are the motivations for having nuclear weapons best described?
• Strategic deterrence, political and prestige benefits.
• The strategic motivation focuses on the role that nuclear weapons play as war-
fighting and war-winning weapons or the deterrence of other nuclear weapons-
capable states. The political and prestige motivation refers to the conviction that
nuclear weapons are the most modern form of weaponry.

OF MASS DESTRUCTION
• "Atoms for Peace“ refers to the the title of an Eisenhower speech which culminated
on the creation of the IAEA.
• Eisenhower proposed in this speech an initiative to open the benefits of atomic
energy to the world community; i.e. implementing "Atoms of Peace". The IAEA
hence was a necessary and comprehensive monitoring system to ensure that
nuclear energy programs were not diverted for military use.

OF MASS DESTRUCTION
• The first Nuclear Weapon-Free Zone was applied in Latin America.
• The Treaty for the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons in Latin America (or Tlateloco
Treaty) was one of the first measures to prevent the nuclearization of a specific
geographical area. It was opened for signature in 1967.

OF MASS DESTRUCTION
• Counter proliferation is a strategy which emphasizes the use of measures such as
ballistic missile defenses and a more proactive stance in the prevention of nuclear
proliferation.
• Counter proliferation is one of the measures to prevent nuclear proliferation during
the so-called second nuclear age. It implies the use of conventional weapons and
missile defense, i.e. a more proactive or offensive policy of prevention.

OF MASS DESTRUCTION
• Agreements that controls export among suppliers to constrain the proliferation of
missile technology:
• The Hague Code of Conduct.
• The Missile Technology Control Regime
• The Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR) are guidelines established in 1987
by seven missile technology exporters to control the sale of nuclear-capable
ballistic or cruise missiles. The Hague Code of Conduct (2002) seeks to develop
standards of appropriate behavior in the transfer of missiles and missile parts.

OF MASS DESTRUCTION
• Which states are NOT signatory to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT)?
• Israel
• Pakistan
• India
• The treaty has 189 State Parties, which is the largest number of any arms control
agreement. However, India, Israel and Pakistan have not signed the NPT. It remains
questionable, how, if at all, these states can be brought into the Treaty. North
Korea announced its withdrawal in 2003, and further announced that it had
conducted an underground nuclear explosion in 2006 and 2009. As of October,
2016, North Korea has conducted five announced nuclear tests between 9
October 2016 to 9 September 2016.

CHAPTER 19: NATIONALISM, NATIONAL SELF-DETERMINATION
• The basic assumptions of nationalism:
• The nation as the fundamental political unit.
• The nation as basis of political loyalty and identity.
• The demand for self-determination.
• Nationalism takes the nation as its fundamental political unit and the basis for
people's political identity and loyalty; the latter of which results in the demand for
self-determination, usually in the form of an autonomous state.

• Difference between the nation and the state:
• "State" and "nation" are both contested concepts as there are many different
and inconsistent meanings to the terms, which are in addition often confused
with each other. Nationality is often correlated with ethnic identity while state
is often correlated with civic organization; however, these descriptions are not
consistent.

• Primordialism refers to the theory which determines that nations are primary
groups constituted by descent and/or culture, accompanied by the idea that
nationalism arises from a prior sense of national identity.
• Primordialism suggests that nations are constituted by descent and culture, and that
this national identity creates nationalism. Ethnic nationalism is a specific type of
nationalism, which claims that the nation is based on common factors many of
which stem from common descent.

• Perennialism refers to the historical claim which argues that there have been cases
of nations and even nationalism before the modern period.
• Perennialism is different from primordialism and ethno-symbolism because it is
presented as an empirical historical claim rather than a theory about primary
descent or culture or the centrality of ethnic myths and memories.

• British nationalism:
• It has been attributed to Christianity, parliamentary institutions, and free trade.
• It was resisted by colonial areas.
• It can be characterized as state-strengthening, civic, and elite.
• British nationalism was civically minded, elite-driven, and state-strengthening.
While the British attributed it to Christian values, domestic institutions, and trade,
the imposition of this nationalism was resisted by parts of the British Empire in
complex historical interactions. See the India case study for an example.

• In the 20th century, the following is a way in which war altered nationalism:
• By giving rise to a fascist variant.
• By giving voice to the demands for self-determination.
• War in Europe arose in part from fragmentary processes set in motion by
destabilizing nationalism; the settlement of the First World War attempted to give
voice to the demands for national self-determination but then enabled the rise of
fascism, a non-insular, aggressive form of nationalism.

• German nationalism:
• Competed between ethnic nationalism and a liberal constitutional form.
• Became increasingly state-strengthening over time.
• Was facilitated by industrialization.
• German nationalism emerged as ethnic nationalism, but as the state industrialized
in ways conducive to the development of military power, it gradually emphasized
state-strengthening more and more.

• Indian nationalism come from a complex hybrid of elite civic nationalism, resistance
to imperial Britain, and ethnically fragmented national identities.
• Indian nationalism emerged from the legacy of British colonialism as a form of
elite civic nationalism but from its inception had to wrestle with state-subverting
ethnic nationalisms as well.

• Those entities "that claim to be national (however defined), [that] are not
challenged by powerful state-opposing nationalist movements, and [which] are
recognized internationally" are called Nation-states
• Nation-states, which are both states and nations, derive their claim to legitimacy in
part from the representation of the national identity and interest of the community
over which the state rules.

• Results of the end of the cold war:
• It has led to discussion of forms of political community beyond the nation-state.
• It has broken up some multi-national states in processes of state subversion.
• It came hand in hand with globalization.
• Globalization and the cold war's end, in tandem, fragmented some states along
ethnic national lines and prompted discussion of order based on supra-national
political community.

CHAPTER 20: GLOBAL TRADE AND GLOBAL FINANCE
• Cross-border transactions refers to the movement across borders of countries of
goods, people, money, investments etc.
• Measuring increased cross-border transactions in terms of the movements of
goods, people, money, and investments across borders is one way of conceiving of
economic globalization.

• The Great Transformation is the name of the famous book published just before
the end of the Second World War, by Karl Polanyi.
• Just before the end of the Second World War, intellectual Karl Polanyi published
The Great Transformation, on the economic causes of the European embrace of
fascism in the 1930s. This distinguished between two generic models of the market
economy: 'embedded' and 'disembedded' markets.

• Countries that had their own East India Companies by the eighteenth century.
• Britain.
• The Netherlands, Denmark and Portugal.
• France and Sweden.
• Britain, the Netherlands, Denmark, Portugal, France and Sweden all had their own
East India companies that allowed them to operate the trading route centred on
modern-day India.

• When the housing market boom first began to unravel globally in 2007, banks
discovered their over-exposure to 'Toxic assets' of mortgage-backed securities
• Banks discovered their over-exposure to 'toxic assets' of mortgage-backed
securities.

• 'The Quad' at the World Trade Organization (WTO) refers to the decision-making
structure within the WTO.
• Having over 150 members means that decision-making could be a huge potential
pitfall for the World Trade Organization. In order to balance representation and
efficiency four key groups actually participate in the final stages of decision-
making: the US, the EU, Brazil and India. These four are known as 'the quad.'

• Major public global governance agency for trade and finance:
• Group of 8 (G8)
• International Organization of Securities Commissions (IOSCO)
• The Group of 8 (G8) conducts semi-formal collaboration on world economic
problems; the International Organization of Securities Commissions (IOSCO) aims
to promote high standards of regulation in stock and bond markets, surveillance of
transborder securities transactions and collaboration between securities markets on
detection of offences.

• The response to the crisis conditions of the 1970s is a turn against government
intervention in the economy.
• The 1970s was a decade of crisis for rich industrialized economies, such as the
USA. Following this crisis-era, governments responded by heavily reducing their
intervention into markets and adopting a far more 'laissez faire' approach. This
was most evident in the policies of, for example, Margaret Thatcher and Ronald
Reagan.

The Contemporary World: Globalization of World Politics

The Contemporary World: Globalization of World Politics

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