The Cold War - 4º ESO bilingual

1. THE COLD WAR - Unit 11
4º BIL

2. 1- The world divided 1945-1975
-After WWII two superpowers emerged: the USA and the USSR.
-Both established their spheres of influence creating a bipolar system,
and making two blocs in the world, the so-called: Western bloc (led by
the USA), and Eastern bloc (USSR).
-This period is characterized by permanent tension between them, but
never war.

3. A third bloc
-Colonies in Africa and Asia during this period demanded and gained
independence.
-These new nations formed a third bloc that was known during the
Cold War, as the Third World.

4. Two opposing blocs
-Western bloc -> capitalist democracies,
led by the USA, the major world
economy.
-Eastern bloc -> Communist regimes, led
by the Soviet Union, the main Communist
regime.
-Meanwhile in Spain the Franco
dictatorship consolidated.

5. Homework
Activity 1 on page 227.

6. 2- The bipolar system
THE WESTERN BLOC
-Marshall Plan (1948) (officially the European Recovery Program)
was the American program to aid Europe, in which the US gave economic
support to help rebuild European economies after the end of WWII in
order to prevent the spread of Soviet Communism.
-The plan was in operation for four years beginning in April 1948. The goals
of the US were to rebuild a war-devastated region, remove trade
barriers, modernize industry, and make Europe prosperous again.
-The initiative was named after Secretary of State George Marshall.
- It offered the same aid to the Soviet Union and its allies, but they did not
accept it, as to do so would be to allow a degree of US control over the
Communist economies.

7. Marshall Plan

8. The Labeling used on Marshall
Plan aid packages.

9. NATO (North Atlantic Treaty
Organization)
-Also called the (North) Atlantic Alliance, is an
intergovernmental military alliance based on the North Atlantic
Treaty which was signed on 4 April 1949. The organization
constitutes a system of collective defence whereby its member
states agree to mutual defense in response to an attack by any
external party.
-NATO's headquarters are in Brussels, one of the 28 member states
across North America and Europe, the newest of which, Albania and
Croatia, joined in April 2009. An additional 22 countries participate
in NATO's "Partnership for Peace", with 15 other countries involved
in institutionalized dialogue programs. The combined military
spending of all NATO members constitutes over 70% of the world's
defence spending.

10. NATO

11. The Eastern Bloc
-The term Eastern Bloc or Communist Bloc refers to the former
communist states of Central and Eastern Europe, generally the Soviet
Union and the countries of the Warsaw Pact.
-Formation of the bloc -> When Soviet Foreign Minister
Vyacheslav Molotov expressed concern that the Yalta Agreement's
might impede Stalin's plans in Central Europe, Stalin responded
"Never mind. We'll do it our own way later." After Soviet forces
remained in Eastern and Central European countries, with the
beginnings of communist puppet regimes installed in those countries,
by falsified elections, Churchill referred to the region as being
behind an "Iron Curtain" of control from Moscow.
-The Soviets rejected the Marshall Plan and took a hard line
position against the US and non-communist European nations.

12. -To prevent some eastern countries to accept the Marshall Plan
help, the USSR created the Comecon in 1949, Council for Mutual
Economic Assistance, an economic organization under the leadership
of the Soviet Union that comprised the countries of the Eastern Bloc
along with a number of socialist states elsewhere in the world. The
Comecon was the Eastern Bloc's reply to the formation of the
Organization for European Economic Co-operation in non-communist
Europe.
-Comecon provided a mechanism through which its leading
member, the Soviet Union, sought to promote economic links with and
among its closest political and military allies. The East European
members of Comecon were also militarily allied with the Soviet Union
in the Warsaw Pact.
Economy

13. Warsaw Pact
-The Warsaw Treaty Organization of Friendship,
Cooperation, and Mutual Assistance (1955–1991), more commonly
referred to as the Warsaw Pact, was a mutual defense treaty
between eight communist states of Central and Eastern Europe in
existence during the Cold War. The founding treaty was established
under the initiative of the Soviet Union and signed on 14 May 1955,
in Warsaw. The Warsaw Pact was the military complement to the
Comecon.
-The Warsaw Pact was in part a Soviet military reaction to the
integration of West Germany into NATO in 1955.
-The strategy of the Warsaw Pact was dominated by the desire
of the Soviet Union to prevent, at all costs, the recurrence of
another large scale invasion of its territory by perceived hostile
Western Bloc powers.

15. China and the Eastern Bloc
-In China, the People's Republic of
China was established by Mao Zedong in
1949. It was a Communist State or regime
known as Maoism.
-Although it was a Communist state,
it did not join the Eastern Bloc because of
difficult relations with the USSR.
-They signed a treaty of friendship for
a period, but soon Mao abandoned it due
to the beginning of conversations between
the USSR and the USA. Mao thought the
USSR was betraying the principles of their
ideology.

16. Dissidence in the USSR
-Hungarian Revolution, 1956 - spontaneous nationwide revolt
against the government of the People's Republic of Hungary and its Soviet-
imposed policies, lasting from 23 October until 10 November. It was the
first major threat to Soviet control since the USSR's forces drove out the
Nazis at the end of WWII and occupied Eastern Europe. Despite the failure
of the uprising, it was highly influential, and came to play a role in the
downfall of the Soviet Union decades later.
-Prague Spring, 1968 - period of liberalization in Czechoslovakia
during the era of its domination by the USSR after WWII. It began on
January 1968, when reformist A. Dubček was elected the First Secretary
of Communist Party of Czechoslovakia, and continued until 21 August
when the Soviet Union and all members of the Warsaw Pact, with the
notable exception of Romania, invaded the country to halt the reforms.

17. Activities
Exercises 2, 3 on page 227.

18. 3- The Cold War
-The Cold war was a sustained state of political and military
tension between powers in the Western Bloc, dominated by the US
with NATO among its allies, and powers in the Eastern Bloc,
dominated by the Soviet Union along with the Warsaw Pact.
3.1. Initial conflicts 1948-1962
-1948 Berlin blockade - it was one of the first major
international crisis of the Cold War. During the multinational
occupation of post–WWII Germany, the Soviet Union blocked the
Western Allies' railway, road, and canal access to the sectors of
Berlin under Allied control. Their aim was to force the western
powers to allow the Soviet zone to start supplying Berlin with food,
fuel, and aid, thereby giving the Soviets practical control over the
entire city.

19. 1948 Berlin blockade
-In response, the Western Allies organized the Berlin airlift to
carry supplies to the people in West Berlin. Aircrews from the US Air
Force, the British Royal Air Force, the Royal Australian Air Force, the
Royal Canadian Air Force, the Royal New Zealand Air Force, and the
South African Air Force flew over 200,000 flights in one year,
providing up to 4700 tons of daily necessities such as fuel and food
to the Berliners.
-By the spring of 1949, the effort was clearly succeeding and, by
April, the airlift was delivering more cargo than had previously been
transported into the city by rail. The success of the Berlin Airlift
brought embarrassment to the Soviets who had refused to believe it
could make a difference. The blockade was lifted in May 1949 and
resulted in the creation of two separate German states.

20. Berlin blockade

21. Berlin Wall
-The Berlin Wall was a barrier constructed by the German
Democratic Republic starting on August 1961, that completely cut
off (by land) West Berlin from surrounding East Germany and from
East Berlin. The barrier included guard towers placed along large
concrete walls, which circumscribed a wide area (later known as
the "death strip") that contained anti-vehicle trenches, "fakir beds"
and other defenses.
-The Eastern Bloc claimed that the wall was erected to protect its
population from fascist elements conspiring to prevent the "will of
the people" in building a socialist state in East Germany. In practice,
the Wall served to prevent the massive emigration and defection
that marked Germany and the communist Eastern Bloc during the
post-World War II period.

27. Immediate effects
-With the closing of the East-West sector boundary in Berlin,
the vast majority of East Germans could no longer travel or
emigrate to West Germany.
-Many families were split, while East Berliners employed in the
West were cut off from their jobs.
-West Berlin became an isolated exclave in a hostile land. West
Berliners demonstrated against the wall, led by their Mayor Willy
Brandt, who strongly criticized the US for failing to respond.
-The East German government claimed that the Wall was an
"anti-fascist protective rampart" intended to dissuade aggression
from the West.

28. Defection attempts
-During the years of the Wall, around
5,000 people successfully defected to West
Berlin.
-The number of people who died trying
to cross the wall, or as a result of the wall's
existence, has been disputed. The most
vocal claims by Alexandra Hildebrandt,
Director of the Checkpoint Charlie Museum
and widow of the Museum's founder,
estimated the death toll to be well above
200. A historic research group at the Center
for Contemporary Historical Research in
Potsdam has confirmed 136 deaths. Prior
official figures listed 98 as being killed.

29. Demolition
The date on which the Wall
fell is considered to have been 9
November 1989 but the Wall in its
entirety was not torn down
immediately. Starting that evening
and in the days and weeks that
followed, people came to the wall
with sledgehammers or otherwise
hammers and chisels to chip off
souvenirs, demolishing lengthy
parts of it in the process and
creating several unofficial border
crossings. These people were
nicknamed "Mauerspechte" (wall
woodpeckers).

31. The Korean War, 1950-1953
-It was a war between the Republic of Korea (South Korea),
supported by the United Nations, and the Democratic People's
Republic of Korea (North Korea), at one time supported by the
People's Republic of China and the Soviet Union.
-It was primarily the result of the political division of Korea by an
agreement of the victorious Allies at the conclusion of the Pacific
War at the end of WWII. The Korean Peninsula was ruled by the
Empire of Japan from 1910 until the end of WWII. Following the
surrender of the Empire of Japan in September 1945, American
administrators divided the peninsula along the 38th parallel, with
U.S. military forces occupying the southern half and Soviet military
forces occupying the northern half.

32. -The failure to hold free elections throughout the Korean
Peninsula in 1948 deepened the division between the two sides;
the North established a communist government, while the South
established a right-wing government.
-The 38th parallel increasingly became a political border
between the two Korean states.
-Although reunification negotiations continued in the months
preceding the war, tension intensified. Cross-border skirmishes
and raids at the 38th Parallel persisted. The situation escalated
into open warfare when North Korean forces invaded South Korea
on 25 June 1950.

33. -In 1950, the Soviet Union boycotted the UN Security Council, in
protest at representation of China by the Republic of China government,
which had taken refuge in Taiwan following defeat in the Chinese Civil
War.
-In the absence of a dissenting voice from the Soviet Union, who
could have vetoed it, the US and other countries passed a Security
Council resolution authorizing military intervention in Korea.
-The USA provided 88% of the international soldiers which aided South
Korea in repelling the invasion, with 20 other countries of the UN helping.
- The fighting ended on 27 July 1953, when the armistice agreement
was signed, restoring the border between the Koreas near the 38th
Parallel and creating the Korean Demilitarized Zone (DMZ), a 4.0 km-wide
fortified buffer zone between the two Korean nations. Incidents still
continue today.

35. Who Ever Heard of
Panmunjom Korea?

36. Suez crisis 1956
-The Suez Crisis was a diplomatic and military confrontation in
late 1956 between Egypt on one side, and Britain, France and Israel on
the other, with the US, the Soviet Union, and the United Nations playing
major roles in forcing Britain, France and Israel to withdraw.
-The attack followed the President of Egypt Nasser's decision of
July 1956 to nationalize the Suez Canal, after the withdrawal of an
offer by Britain and the US to fund the building of the Aswan Dam,
which was in response to Egypt's new ties with the Soviet Union and
recognizing the People's Republic of China.
-The aims of the attack were primarily to regain Western control of the
canal and to remove Nasser from power, and the crisis highlighted the
danger that Arab nationalism posed to Western access to Middle East
oil.

39. The 1962 Cuban Missile Crisis
-The Cuban Missile Crisis was a 13-day confrontation between the
Soviet Union and Cuba on one side, and the US on the other, in October
1962. It was one of the major confrontations of the Cold War, and is
generally regarded as the moment in which the Cold War came closest
to turning into a nuclear conflict.
-After provocative political moves and the failed US attempt to
overthrow the Cuban regime, in May 1962 Khrushchev proposed the
idea of placing Soviet nuclear missiles on Cuba to discourage any
future invasion attempt. During a meeting between Khrushchev and
Fidel Castro, a secret agreement was reached and construction of
several missile sites began in the late summer.
-Such a move would also neutralize the US's advantage of having
missiles in Turkey.

40. -These preparations were noticed and on October, a US U-2 aircraft
took several pictures clearly showing sites for medium-range and
intermediate-range ballistic nuclear missiles under construction. These
images were processed and presented on October 15, which marks the
beginning of the 13-day crisis from the US perspective.
-The US considered attacking Cuba via air and sea, but decided
on a military blockade instead, for legal and other reasons.
-On the Soviet side, Khrushchev wrote in a letter from October 24
to President Kennedy that his blockade constituted "an act of
aggression propelling humankind into the abyss of a world nuclear-
missile war". However, in secret back-channel communications the
President and Premier initiated a proposal to resolve the crisis.

41. -The confrontation ended on October 28, when Kennedy and UN
Secretary-General reached an agreement with Khrushchev. Publicly, the
Soviets would dismantle their offensive weapons in Cuba and return them
to the Soviet Union, subject to UN verification, in exchange for a US
public declaration and agreement never to invade Cuba.

42. 3.2. Peaceful coexistence 1963-1975
-Peaceful coexistence was a theory developed and applied by
the Soviet Union at various points during the Cold War in the
context of its ostensibly Marxist–Leninist foreign policy and was
adopted by Soviet-influenced "Socialist states" that they could
peacefully coexist with the capitalist bloc.
-This was in contrast to the antagonistic contradiction principle
that Communism and capitalism could never coexist in peace. The
Soviet Union applied it to relations between the western world and
in particular, the United States and NATO countries and the nations
of the Warsaw Pact.

43. The Vietnam War 1961-1975
-It was a Cold War-era military conflict that occurred in Vietnam,
Laos, and Cambodia from 1 November 1955 to the fall of Saigon on 30
April 1975. The Viet Cong (also known as the National Liberation
Front), a lightly armed South Vietnamese communist common front
directed by the North, largely fought a guerrilla war against anti-
communist forces in the region. The Vietnam People's Army (North
Vietnam) engaged in a more conventional war, at times committing
large units into battle. U.S. and South Vietnamese forces relied on air
superiority and overwhelming firepower to conduct search and
destroy operations, involving ground forces, artillery, and airstrikes.
-The US government viewed involvement in the war as a way to
prevent a communist takeover of South Vietnam as part of their wider
strategy of containment.

44. -US military involvement ended on 15 August 1973 as a result of
the Case–Church Amendment passed by the US Congress. The capture
of Saigon by the Vietnam People's Army in April 1975 marked the end
of the war, and North and South Vietnam were reunified the following
year.
-The war exacted a huge human cost in terms of fatalities.
Estimates of the number of Vietnamese service members and civilians
killed vary from 800,000 to 3.1 million. Some 200,000–300,000
Cambodians, 20,000–200,000 Laotians, and 58,220 US service
members also died in the conflict.

45. The Arab-Israeli
conflict

46. The Arab-Israeli conflict
-The Arab–Israeli conflict refers to the political tension and military
conflicts between the Arab League and Israel and between Arabs and
Israelis. The conflict between Palestinian Jews and Arabs emerged in
the early 20th century during the 1920 Nebi Musa riots, exploding
into a full scale civil war in 1947 and expanding to all Arab League
countries with the creation of the modern State of Israel in May
1948.
-The conflict, which started as a political and nationalist conflict
over competing territorial ambitions following the collapse of the
Ottoman Empire, has shifted over the years from the large scale
regional Arab–Israeli conflict to a more local Israeli–Palestinian
conflict, as large-scale hostilities largely ended with the cease fire,
following the 1973 October War.

47. Activities
Exercises 6 and 7 on page 227.

48. 4- Decolonisation and non-alignment
4.1. DECOLONISATION
-Decolonization is the undoing of colonialism, the unequal
relation of polities whereby one people or nation establishes and
maintains dependent Territory over another. It can be understood
politically or culturally. The term refers particularly to the
dismantlement, in the years after WWII, of the Neo-Imperial
empires established prior to World War I throughout Africa and Asia.
-The UN Special Committee on Decolonization has stated that
in the process of decolonization there is no alternative to the
colonizer's allowance of self-determination, but in practice
decolonization may involve either nonviolent revolution or national
liberation wars by the native population. It may be intramural or
involve the intervention of foreign powers.

50. India - Mahatma Gandhi
-Gandhi was the preeminent leader of Indian
nationalism in British-ruled India. Employing non-
violent civil disobedience, Gandhi led India to
independence and inspired movements for non-
violence, civil rights and freedom across the
world.
-In his last year, unhappy at the partition of
India, Gandhi worked to stop the carnage
between Muslims, Hindus and Sikhs that raged in
the border area between India and Pakistan. He
was assassinated on 30 January 1948 by Nathuram
Godse who thought Gandhi was too sympathetic
to India's Muslims.

51. Indonesian independence
-The Proclamation of Indonesian Independence was read on August
17, 1945. The declaration marked the start of the diplomatic and armed-
resistance of the Indonesian National Revolution, fighting against the
forces of the Netherlands until the latter officially acknowledged
Indonesia's independence in 1949. The document was signed by Sukarno
who was appointed President the following day.
Sukarno, accompanied
by Mohammad Hatta
(right), proclaiming the
independence of
Indonesia.

52. Algerian independence
-The Algerian War, also known as the Algerian War of
Independence, was a war between France and the Algerian
independence movements from 1954 to 1962, which led to Algeria
gaining its independence from France.
-An important decolonization war, it was a complex conflict
characterized by guerrilla warfare, maquis fighting, terrorism against
civilians, the use of torture on both sides, and counter-terrorism
operations by the French Army.
-The conflict was also a civil war between loyalist Algerians who
believed in a French Algeria and their insurrectionist Algerian Muslim
counterparts.

53. 4.2. The Non-Aligned Movement
-The Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) is a group of states which are
not aligned formally with or against any major power bloc. As of
2012, the movement has 120 members and 17 observer countries.
-The organization was founded in Belgrade in 1961, and was
largely conceived by Yugoslavia's president, Tito; Indonesia's first
president, Sukarno; Egypt's second president, Nasser; Ghana's first
president Nkrumah; and India's first prime minister, Nehru. All five
leaders were prominent advocates of a middle course for states in
the Developing World between the Western and Eastern blocs in the
Cold War.
-The phrase itself was first used to represent the doctrine by
Indian diplomat and statesman V.K. Krishna Menon in 1953, at the
United Nations.

54. Non-Aligned Movement today

55. Third World
-The term Third World arose
during the Cold War to define
countries that remained non-aligned
with either NATO, or the Communist
Bloc.
-This terminology provided a way
of broadly categorizing the nations of
the Earth into three groups based on
social, political, and economic
divisions. The Third World was
normally seen to include many
countries in Africa, Latin America, and
Asia, which had a colonial past. It was
also sometimes taken as synonymous
with countries in the Non-Aligned
Movement.

56. Third World problems
-Some of the political, economic and social problems that these
countries had, are the product of either, imperialism, and the
decolonization process.
-These problems include:
.wars between ethnic or religious groups which were
separated when the borders of new independent nations were
established.
.poverty caused by these countries' dependence on selling
raw materials to developed countries.

57. Activities
Exercises 8, 9 on page 233.

58. 5- Post-war society
-WESTERN SOCIETY
.Social inequalities.
.Improvement on living standards.
.Establishment of the welfare state.
.Growth of the middle class.
.Consumerism.
.Protest movements during the 1960s: in the US a movement
against the racial segregation (led by Martin Luther King), and the
hippy movement, and in France, student protests against the
government.

59. Civil Rights. M. Luther King
-Martin Luther King, Jr. was an
American clergyman, activist, and
leader in the African-American Civil
Rights Movement. He is best known for
his role in the advancement of civil
rights using nonviolent civil
disobedience. King has become a
national icon in the history of American
progressivism.
-King also helped to organize the
1963 March on Washington, where he
delivered his "I Have a Dream" speech.

60. Civil Rights Act of 1964
-The Civil Rights Act of 1964 is a landmark piece of civil rights
legislation in the United States that outlawed major forms of
discrimination against racial, ethnic, national and religious
minorities, and women. It ended unequal application of voter
registration requirements and racial segregation in schools, at the
workplace and by facilities that served the general public (known
as "public accommodations").
-Powers given to enforce the act were initially weak, but were
supplemented during later years.
-The Act was signed into law by President Lyndon B. Johnson,
who would later sign the landmark Voting Rights Act into law.

61. Hippy movement
-The hippie subculture developed
as a youth movement that began in
the US during the early 1960s and
spread around the world.
-From around 1967, its
fundamental ethos — including
harmony with nature, communal
living, artistic experimentation
particularly in music, and the
widespread use of recreational drugs
— spread around the world.
-They made protests against the
war.

62. May 1968 events in France
-It was a volatile period of civil unrest punctuated by massive general
strikes and the occupation of factories and universities across France.
-It was the largest general strike ever attempted in France, and the
first ever nation-wide wildcat general strike. At the height of its fervor,
the agitation virtually brought the entire advanced capitalist economy of
France to a dramatic halt.
-The events would have a resounding impact on French society that
would be felt for decades to come.
-The events began with a series of student occupation protests,
followed by strikes involving 11,000,000 workers, over 22% of the total
population of France at the time, for two continuous weeks, and its
impact was such that it almost caused the collapse of French President
Charles de Gaulle's government.

63. Eastern-Bloc society
-Society was supposed to be classless.
-Services were provided by the State.
-Economy was controlled and planned by the State.
-Industry was focused on heavy industry.
-Citizens were not free.
-SOVIET UNION: Stalinism features had transformed daily life.
-CHINA: Chinese communism changed also the people's lives.
-In both, there were not private property, collectivisation was
applied.

64. Activities
Exercise 13 on page 233.

65. 6- The post-war economy
6.1. The Western-Bloc economy
-Several factors made possible the economic growth
during the period between 1945-1975:
.European reconstruction, helped by the Marshall Plan.
Europe after the recovery became an important market for
American goods.
.State intervention to improve public services.
.New technology influenced in the growth of industry.

66. The European Economic
Community (EEC)
-The EEC was an international organization created by the Treaty of
Rome of 1957.
-Its aim was to bring about economic integration, including a
common market, among its six founding members: Belgium, France, Italy,
Luxembourg, the Netherlands and West Germany.
-The EEC was also known as the Common Market in the English-
speaking world and sometimes referred to as the European Community
even before it was officially renamed as such in 1993.
-Two previous institutions established the foundations of the EEC:
.Benelux: Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg created in 1948
the Benelux Customs Union.
.ECSC: in 1951 the European Coal and Steel Community was created.

67. Benelux, territory and flag

68. European Atomic Energy
Community (EAEC or Euratom)
-It is an international organisation founded in 1958 with
the purpose of creating a specialist market for nuclear power
in Europe, developing nuclear energy and distributing it to its
member states while selling the surplus to non-member
states.
-It was established by the Euratom Treaty on 25 March
1957 alongside the EEC, being taken over by the executive
institutions of the EEC in 1967. The Common Assembly
proposed extending the powers of the European Coal and
Steel Community to cover other sources of energy, but they
wanted a separate community to cover nuclear power.

69. First EEC enlargement
-After much negotiation, and following a change in the French
Presidency, Denmark, Ireland and the UK eventually joined the EEC on 1
January 1973.

70. 6.2. The Eastern-Bloc and Chinese
economies
-The Stalinist planned economy
-Main goal: to promote heavy industry, infrastructure and
arms production.
-Measures to achieve its aim:
.Hydroelectric plants to provide energy.
.Agricultural land collectivisation.
-In Eastern-Bloc countries changes were also made:
nationalization of agricultural estates, industry, banks and
telecommunications.
-The USSR became the world's second leading economy after
reducing centralised planning with Stalin's successors.

71. COMECON
The Council for Mutual
Economic Assistance, 1949–
91, was an economic
organization under the
leadership of the Soviet
Union that comprised the
countries of the Eastern Bloc
along with a number of
socialist states elsewhere in
the world. The Comecon
was the Eastern Bloc's reply
to the formation of the
Organization for European
Economic Co-operation in
non-communist Europe.

72. The Chinese planned economy
-The Great Leap Forward
-The Great Leap Forward of the People's Republic of China was
an economic and social campaign by the Communist Party from
1958 to 1961. It was led by Mao Zedong and aimed to rapidly
transform the country from an agrarian economy into a communist
society through rapid industrialization and collectivization. The
campaign led to the Great Chinese Famine.
-Chief changes in the lives of rural Chinese included the
introduction of a mandatory process of agricultural collectivization,
which was introduced incrementally. Private farming was
prohibited, and those engaged in it were labeled as counter
revolutionaries and persecuted.

73. Activities
Exercises 14, 15 and 16 on page 239.

74. 7- Francoist regime
Francoist Spain, also known as Fascist Spain,
refers to the period of Spanish history between
1936 and 1975 when the authoritarian dictatorship of Francisco
Franco, Caudillo por gracia de Dios, took control of Spain from the
government of the constitutionally liberal democratic Second
Spanish Republic in the Spanish Civil War.

75. Domestic policy
Franco's regime could be divided into two periods,
in the first one, known as Totalitarian Spain, we were almost
isolated internationally, and the main measures introduced were:
-Franco concentrated all the power, with the support of the only
official party: Falange Española de las JONS.
-The Constitution of 1931 was replaced by a set of constitutional
laws dictated by Franco, they were known as the Fundamental Laws
of the Realm.
-Power was centralised and regionalism was suppressed. The use
of other languages was prohibited.

76. The second part of his regime was
known as Technocrat Spain, it began in
1959 and it was characterised by the
objective of modernising the country.
In order to achieve that,
government became more technocratic,
and Franco appointed a number of
technical specialists as ministers.
In 1969 Franco designated Juan
Carlos (Bourbon House) as his successor,
and change some laws in order to modify
the regime's authoritarian image.

77. Foreign policy
During the first period Spain was
isolated because the UN had imposed
an embargo for being a dictatorship.
From the end of this period Franco
began to open the regime and to
establish new relations.
He made a military agreement with the
USA in 1953.
He made a Concordat with the Catholic
Church head, the Vatican, in 1953 as
well.
Spain also became a UN member in
1955.

78. Concordat of 1953
The Concordat of 1953 was the last classic concordat
of the Roman Catholic Church. Concluded by Spain
(under the regime of Francisco Franco) with the Vatican,
and together with the Pact of Madrid, signed the same year, it
was a significant effort to break Spain's international isolation after
WWII .
In return for the granting by the Vatican of the "royal patronage"
(Patronato real, the privilege of Spanish kings to appoint clerical
figures) to Franco, the concordat gave the Church a set of
privileges, e.g. state funding and exemption from government
taxation.
The Concordat of 1953 superseded the Concordat of 1851 and
Franco's 1941 Convention with the Vatican.

79. Pact of Madrid
-The Pact of Madrid, signed in 1953 by Spain and the United
States, ended a period of virtual isolation for Spain, although the
other victorious allies of WWII and much of the rest of the world
remained hostile to what they regarded as a fascist regime
sympathetic to the Nazi cause and established with Axis assistance.
-The 1953 accord took the form of three separate executive
agreements that pledged the United States to furnish economic and
military aid to Spain.
-The United States, in turn, was to be permitted to construct
and to utilize air and naval bases on Spanish territory.

80. 7.2. The economy under Franco
-During the first period of the regime, Spain suffered an economic
crisis due to the embargo imposed by the UN. As a result Spain
developed a self-sufficient economy that led to economic
stagnation and stopped industrial development.
-Spain tried to achieve economic development through autarky.
-Once more the rationing system and the black market appeared.
-During the second phase of the regime, Spain began to change its
economy with the new technocratic government because they
considered the autarky a failure.
-New industrial zones were created and foreign currency began to
arrive (mainly from spanish emigrants who sent money home and
from tourism).

81. Economical advances
-Spain joined the main international organizations (IMF, W, OECD)
-Plan de Estabilización, 1959.
-Planes de Desarrollo, 1964.
-Arrival of massive tourism.
-Foreign investments.
-Emigration to Europe and America.
All of them led Spain to the end of a rural and agricultural
economy and transformed it into an industrial economy quickly.

82. 7.3. Society under Franco
-Indoctrination: to promote traditional ideas. This was carried
out by organizations like the Sección Femenina or the Frente de
Juventudes or by the NO-DO.
-Non-government trade unions and all political opponents
across the political spectrum were either suppressed or controlled
by all means, including police repression.
-The Confederación Nacional del Trabajo (CNT) and the Unión
General de Trabajadores (UGT) trade unions were outlawed, and
replaced in 1940 by the corporatist Sindicato Vertical, the only
legal trade union organisation in Francoist Spain (1940–1975), and a
main component of the Movimiento Nacional Francoist apparatus.

84. Religion under Franco
-Franco was a very conservative Roman Catholic.
-The Law of Political Responsibility of February 1939 gave the Church
the chance to become an extralegal body of investigation with each
parish in charge of policing its parishioners at the same level as the
local government officials and local leaders of the falange. Some
official jobs required a "good behavior" statement by a priest.
-The law of 1939 made the priests, in communion with government
officials, investigators of peoples ideological and political pasts.
Catholicism was made the official religion of the Spanish State,
which enforced Catholic traditional values. The remaining nomads of
Spain (Gitanos and Mercheros) were especially affected.

85. Activities
Exercises 18 and 19 on page 239.

86. 8- Art and architecture during the Cold War
8.1. Western-Bloc art and architecture
-ORGANIC ARCHITECTURE
Organic architecture is a philosophy of architecture which
promotes harmony between human habitation and the natural
world through design approaches so sympathetic and well
integrated with its site, that buildings, furnishings, and
surroundings become part of a unified, interrelated composition.
The term organic architecture was coined by Frank Lloyd
Wright (1867–1959), main figure in this movement.
The idea of organic architecture refers not only to the
buildings' literal relationship to the natural surroundings, but how
the buildings' design is carefully thought about as if it were a
unified organism.

87. Frank Lloyd Wright
American architect, interior
designer, writer and educator,
who designed more than 1,000
structures and completed 532
works. Wright believed in
designing structures which were
in harmony with humanity and
its environment, a philosophy
he called organic architecture.
It was best exemplified by his
design for Fallingwater (1935),
which has been called "the best
all-time work of American
architecture".

88. Pop Art
Pop art is an art movement that emerged in the mid-1950s in
Britain and in the late 1950s in the US. Pop art presented a
challenge to traditions of fine art by including imagery from
popular culture such as advertising, news, etc.
In Pop art, material is sometimes visually removed from its
known context, isolated, and/or combined with unrelated
material. The concept of pop art refers not as much to the art
itself as to the attitudes that led to it.
Pop art employs aspects of mass culture, such as advertising,
comic books and mundane cultural objects. It is widely
interpreted as a reaction to the then-dominant ideas of abstract
expressionism, as well as an expansion upon them.

89. Andy Warhol
Andy Warhol was an American artist who was a leading figure
in the visual art movement known as pop art. His works explore
the relationship between artistic expression, celebrity culture and
advertisement that flourished by the 1960s.
After a successful career as a commercial illustrator, Warhol
became a renowned and sometimes controversial artist.
Warhol's art encompassed many forms of media, including hand
drawing, painting, printmaking, photography, silk screening,
sculpture, film, and music. He was also a pioneer in computer-
generated art using Amiga computers that were introduced in
1984, two years before his death.

91. Kinetic Sculpture
Kinetic art is art from any medium that
contains movement perceivable by the viewer or
depends on motion for its effect.
More pertinently speaking, kinetic art is a
term that today most often refers to three-
dimensional sculptures and figures such as
mobiles that move naturally or are machine
operated. The moving parts are generally
powered by wind, a motor or the observer. Kinetic
art encompasses a wide variety of overlapping
techniques and styles.
Alexander Calder is an artist who many
believe to have defined firmly and exactly the
style of mobiles in kinetic art.

92. Calder's mobiles

93. 8.2. Official art in Communist regimes
The Communist regimes did not allow artistic freedom, so many
artists went into exile.
Communist states used an official art as a form of propaganda. They
were works to glorify the leader and his regime.
The main characteristics of official art and architecture were:
.Architecture: monumental buildings were designed to host
national institutions.
.Sculpture: large commemorative sculptures were created.
.Painting: Socialist Realism in China or Soviet Realism in the USSR
were the new styles that idealised the lives of workers and
peasants under Communist regimes, or presented glorified images
of the leaders.

94. "Spring day" by Nikolai Pozdneev
A relief from the Soviet military
cemetery in Warsaw showing workers
greeting victorious soldiers.

95. Activities
Exercises 2 and 5 on page 244.
Exercise Unit Summary on page 246.