Anthropology and orthodontics

1. ANTHROPOLOGY

2. ANTHROPOLOGY
Anthropos + logos - Anthropology
Anthropo- Human
logos - Science
“ANTHROPOLOGIST” - ARISTOTLE

3. DEFINITIONS
KROEBER – Anthropology is the science of
groups of men and their behavior and
production.
JACOBS & STERN – Anthropology is the
scientific study of the physical, social, and
cultural development and behavior of human
beings since their appearance on the earth.

4. Classification of anthropology
 PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY
 CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY

5. PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY
1. HUMAN GENETICS
2. HUMAN PALEONTOLOGY
3. ETHNOLOGY
4. ANTHROPOMETRY
5. BIOMETRY

6. CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY
1. PREHISTORIC ANTHROPOLOGY
2. SOCIAL ANTHROPOLOGY

7. PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY
Physical anthropology is concerned with man as a
physical organism in ‘time’ & ‘space’
 Study of the man through evolutionary
processes
 study of human populations
BEALS & HOIJER – The study of processes where
by man developed from his non human
ancestors and the continuing process of change
still slowly altering his bodily form.

8. PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY
HUMAN GENETICS
E.C.COLIN – Genetics is the branch of biology which deals
with the laws and principles of heredity and variation as
observed in plants, in animals and in human.
HUMAN PALEONTOLOGY
Webster’s New International Dictionary – Human
paleontology is the science that deals with life of the past
geographical periods.

9. PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY
ETHNOLOGY
S.S DUBE – Ethnology is a comparative study of the races
and culture of mankind in their different aspects.
ANTHROPOMETRY
HERSKOVITS – The measurements of man
BIOMETRY
CHARLES WINIK – Biometry is the statistical analysis of
biological studies specially as applied to such areas as
disease, birth, growth, and death.

10. Cultural anthropology
E.A . HOEBEL – Culture is the sum total
of learned behavioral patterns
.
1. PREHISTORIC ARCHEOLOGY
BEALS & HOIJER – It deals with ancient
cultures and with past phases of
modern civilization.
.

11. Cultural anthropology
2. SOCIAL ANTHROPOLOGY
CHARLES WINIK – Social anthropology is
the study of social behavior especially
from the point of view of the systematic
comparative study of social forms and
institutions.

12. Human evolution
PRIMATOLOGY
PRIMATE PALEONTOLOGY
Mammal
Protheria Theria
Metatheria Eutheria
Primate

13. Characteristics of primates
1. Limbs - prehensile
2. Thumb / great toe
3. Nails - grasping function
4. Teeth - adopted for mixed food
5. Mammary gland - lactation
6. Brain - well developed
7. Clavicle

14. Classification of primates
 Prosimian
 anthropoidea

15. Classification of primates
1. Prosimian primates ( 60 mil years )
a. lemuroidea - lemur, loris
b. torsoidea - torsier
 Earliest true primates
 Well developed cerebellar cortices
 Limbs had highly mobile joints
 Unspecialised tooth cusps
 Dental formula – I 2/2 C1/1 PM 3/3 M3/3

16. ANTHROPOIDEA
1. Ceboidea ( Platyrrhine of New World Monkeys)
2. Cercopithecoidea ( Catarrine Of Old World
Monkeys )
3. Hominoidea

17. ANTHROPOIDEA
CEBOIDEA – ( spider monkey )
 The higher primates
Dental formula – I 2/2, C1/1, PM2/2, M3/3
 4 blunt cusps on molars

18. ANTHROPOIDEA
Cercopithecidae –( Macaque monkey )
1. Arboreal in their habits
2. Non prehensile tails
3. Dental formula – I2/2, C1/1, PM2/2, M3/3

19. HOMINOIDEA
Hominoidea is further sub divided into
 Pongids
 Australopithecines

20. ANTHROPOIDEA
Pongids ( Great apes )
Ex : Gibbons, Gorillas, Orang-utans, Chimpanzees
 Large brains
 Pelvic girdle & legs became more robust
 Orangutans remained arboreal
 Chimpanzees, gorillas are quadripedal

21. HOMINOIDS
AUSTRALOPITHECINES
First bipedal fossil anthropoids found in rocks of Eastern
& South Africa ( 1-3.6 mil years ago )
HOMO ERUCTUS ( Upright man )
HOMOSAPIENS HOMOSAPIENS
SAPIENS
NIANDERTHALENSIS
( Cro-magnon man ) ( Neanderthal man )

22. Neanderthal man
skull-Very large
-Dolico cephalic
-Face is highly developed
with maxillay prognathism
-Lower jaw is strong & large
-chin is less prominent
-human dentition
-canine is of ordinary size

23. Cro-magnon man
Skull–large & massive
-face is short, and flat
-maxillary region
shows less marked
prognathism
-lower jaw is strong
& not massive
-a well marked chin

24. MODERN MAN
Final steps to modern man ( 20 mil years )
1. Remarkable increase in brain size gave the
forehead a more domed appearance
2. Folding of cerebral cortex
3. Bipedal walking
4. Use of hands for manipulation
5. Occipital ridges became small

25. MODERN MAN
7. Simplification of nasal region
8. Reduced prognathism
9. Chin increased
in prominence
10. Angle between
base of the skull and
cervical vertebrae is 900

26. Evolution of human face
Face is the seat of principle sense organs
In lower vertebrates
No fully ossified skeleton
Jaw muscles are merely modified gill arch muscles
Teeth are specialisations of tough shagreen or skin with
minute calcified papillae or denticles
In the amphibians
The bony plates behind the jaws have disappeared, leaving
an exposed area –orbit notch

27. In the fossil, mammal like reptiles
The bony mask of the temporal region is
perforated
Complex dentary – lower jaw
Dentary becomes enlarged & presses external
pterygoid muscle, forming the cushion –
meniscus ( glenoid fossa )
Heat regulating devices
Forward migration of neck muscles
Bony mask was replaced by skin

28. FACIAL FORM
Each person’s face is a custom made original
Anthropologists can reconstructs the face from a
dry skull
The biologic rationale underlying common
variations :
1. Different facial types
2. Male & female developmental facial differences
3. Child & adult facial differences

29. Head form
Two general extremes
 Dolicocephalic ( long, narrow )
leptoprosopic
 Brachycephalic ( Wide, short, globular )
euryprosopic

30. DOLICOCEPHALIC
 Nose is longer &
Protrusive with Aquiline
type of Nasal contour
 Convex profile
 Cheek bones are less prominent
 Longer, narrower, & deeper maxillary arch &
palate
 Downward & backward rotation of the mandible
 Receding chin

31. BRACHYCEPHALIC
 Nose is protrusively
shorter (rounded tip )
 Prominent cheek bones
 Concave / straight profile
 Wider, shorter and more shallow palate and
maxillary arch
 Mandible is more protrusive
 More prominent chin

32. DINARIC HEAD FORM
Dinaric Alps, Yugoslavia
“Brachycephalised
dolicocephalic”
Flattened occipital regions
Bossing of parietal regions
Skull has triangular configuration
Fore head is sloping & the profile tending towards
orthognathic
Mandible tends to be less retrusive

33. Male versus female features
 Size & configuration
of the nose
 Fore head
 Cheek bones
 upper jaw look
more prominent in
females

34. Child versus adult features
 Nasal part is small
 Dentition ( primary & permanent )
 Jaw bones (masticatory musles & airway)
Head form
Sexual dimorphism

35. Child versus adult features
Child’s face is not a miniature of the adult face
1. Forehead
2. Face appears
diminutive in child
3. Nasal region
4. Eyes appears wide set
5. Mandible is small
6. chin is incompletely formed

36. Evolution of teeth
Lobe finned fishes
- upper & lower jaws had bone bearing
plates ( labyrinthodont )
- peg formed teeth
Reptiles & mammals
 teeth are set in separate sockets
 cone shaped canines
 milk teeth & permanent teeth

37. RACE
“A group that differs from other
classes or human group by virtue of some
specific physiological characteristics that
are found uniformly within that group”
- Maclver & page

38. RACIAL CLASSIFICATION
Important characters used for racial
determination :
 skin colour
 hair
 head form
 face
 nose
 eye
 stature
 blood groups

39. CLASSIFICATION
CATEGORIES OF CRITERIA
 COMMON VARIABLE CHARACTERS
 COMMON PHYSIOLOGICAL CHARACTERS
 RARE GENETIC CHARACTERS

40. RACIAL CLASSIFICATION
1. NEGROID
2. CAUCASOID
3. MANGOLOID
AUSTRALOIDS

41. NEGROIDS
African negroes & oceanic negros
 woolly or frizzly hair on the head
 Black coloured skin
 Nose is broad and flat
 Lips are thick and everted
 Facial prognathism
 Brow ridges are small

42. MANGOLOID
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
 Black, straight, coarse hair
 Yellowish brown colour skin
 Broad flat face with prominent cheek
bones
 Mangoloid fold

43. MANGOLOIDS
1. CLASSIC / CENTRAL MANGOLOID
-Northern Chaina, Tibet& Mangolia
2. ARCTIC / ESKIMOID
-Northern Asia, arctic coast of north
America
3. INDONESIAN - MALAY MANGOLOID
-Japan, Thailand, Southern China
4. AMERICAN INDIAN
-North, Middle, and South America

44. CAUCASOID
Skin – fair, olive & all shades of brown
Hair – flat, wavy to various degrees of
curliness
Head form –dolicocephalic to
brachycephalic
Nose – leptorrhine to mesorrhine
Jaws –no prognathism
Chin - pronounced

45. CAUCASOIDS
1. MEDITERRANEAN- all sea shores ( India,
Spain, Portugal, France etc. )
2. NORDIC – Scandinavians, Northern Germany,
Northern France
3. ALPINE – Central Europe
4. EAST BALTIC – North eastern Germany,
Poland, Baltic states
5. DINARIC –Dinaric alps region in Yugoslavia

46. CAUCASOIDS
6. ARMENOIDS – turkey, Syria,Palestine Iraq,
Iran
7. CELTIC – Iceland, Scotland and western
Europe
8. LAPP – Norway, Sweden
9. INDO-DRAVIDIAN –south & central India
10. POLYNESIAN – Polynesian islands of the
pacific e.g. New Zealand
11. AINU – ancient stock of Japan

47. Australoids
They closely resemble the Caucasoids in
many characters
1. Australian aborigins -Australia
2. Pre-Dravidian ( veddoid )- South and
central India including Typical Indian
tribes

48. Races in india
Sir Herbert Risley ( > 75 yrs )
Based on Indo-Aryans ( west )
mangoloids ( east)
 Dravidian
 Indo Aryan
 Mangoloid

49. RACES IN INDIA
Based on the measurements on the samples of
indian population – Risley
1. Turko- iranian – they inhabitat the Baluchistan
( now in Pakistan ). Tall in nature&
brachycephalic
2. Indo- aryan – eastern part of Punjab Rajastan
& Kashmir. Tall & fair complexioned
3. Scytho-dravidian- hilly traces of Madhya
pradesh, & Coorg. Medium statured &
Brachycephalic

50.  Aryo- dravidian – U.P. Rajastan & Bihar. Short
statured & mesocephalic
 Mangolo- dravidian- Bengal & Orissa Stature is
medium & sometimes short, round headed with
medium nose
 Mangoloid – Himalayan regions ( Nepal, Bhutan,
Assam, & North eastern states

51. Dental anthropology
Beginning - Eighties of 18th
century
Recognised - 20th
century
Founder of american journal of physical
anthropology – Ales Hrdlicka
The term dental anthropology was used in
early 1900s

52. Different aspects of anthropology ( applied
anthropology )
 Dental development
 Dental pathology
 Dental morphology
 Forensic odontology
 odontometry

53. DENTAL DEVELOPMENT
Tooth eruption standards which are
relatively independent of general body
growth and skeletal maturation are of
great significance in the diagnosis &
treatment planning of children with growth
disturbances
protein-calorie malnutrition ( PCM )

54. PATHOLOGY
Dental caries – it is a pathologic condition of the
teeth resulting in the decalcification of the
dentin, enamel and the disintegration of the
remaining organic material often leading to the
loss of teeth.
Caries susceptibility expresses the inherent or
acquired proneness to caries
Low incidence of caries in the prehistoric as also in
the living tribal communities – coarse & fibrous
food products

55. DENTAL MORPHOLOGY
Teeth are best preserved & most easily
accessible anatomical system of the body.
pioneering studies – Hrdlicka, Dahlberg,
Campbell, Hellmen, Krogman, Moorrees
etc.

56. 1.Supernumerary teeth or hyperdontia
- causes dental disturbances by interfering
with normal eruption
- either peg shaped or have large crown
- Higher frequency in the maxilla
-Campbell conducted a study on the skulls
and living Australian aborigines.(1.8% )

57. 2.Carabelli’s cusp or anomaly
Von Carabelli in 1842
Its occurrence – back to paleolithic man
An elevation or tubercle on the lingual surface of
the mesio-lingual cusp of the maxillary molars
particularly the first one
A marker for differentiation between different
ethnic groups.

58. 3.Shovel-shaped incisors
“SHOVELLING” – Muhlreiter ( 1870 )
A condition resulting from a combination of a
concave lingual surface and elevated mesial
and distal marginal ridges enclosing a central
fossa in the upper and lower incisor teeth
Hrdlicka ( 1911 ) had done pioneering work in
dental anthropology and reported pronounced
shovelling in the incisors of american indians

59. Acco. to Hrdlicka – 4 grades of shovelling
1. Shovel- enamel rim has well developed fossa
2. Semi shovel- enamel rim is distinct but with
shallower fossa
3. Trace shovel- enamel rim has distinct traces
4. No shovel- enamel rim has no fossa
HELLMAN –marked, medium, trace, and absent

60. 4.Diastema
It is a space or gap present between the maxillary
central incisors or between the lateral incisors
and canines
Former – median diastema (combined with small
laterla incisors or large labial frenum)
Latter – lateral diastema (found in anthropoid apes
& certain fossil men )

61. 5. Crowding
Lasker – inheritence of large teeth from one
parent and a small jaw from the other
6. Cingulum or lingual cusp
A shelf or swelling which is found on the
tooth just above the central line
Site of development of many supernumerary
cusps

62. 7. Occlusion
Relationship between the masticatory
surfaces of the maxillary and mandibular
teeth when the mouth is closed
-heriditory factors
-environmental factors
The term ‘malocclusion’ is illdefined and
biased - corrucini & whitley

63. 1. Overjet – normal (2-4mm),
- positive (>5mm)
- extreme positive(>7mm)
- negative, extreme negative
2. Overbite-
3. Posterior cross bite
4.buccal segment relation

64. FORENSIC ODONTOLOGY
Deals with the identification & study of
human teeth
identification of a person involved in mass
disasters ( autobobile/aircraft accidents,
floods, building collapse and industrial
hazards)

65. ODONTOMETRY
Tooth size standards based on odontometry can
be used in the age & sex determination of
skeletal and also living population
Studies – males have larger teeth (mesio distal
crown diameters )
- canines show greatest amount of
sexual dimorphism
-Europeans have smaller teeth than
mangolians or other racial groups

66. Dr.V. Rami reddy conducted a retrospective cross
sectional study on population of Gulbarga
disrtict (1971-1975)
1. Eruptiion pattern
2. Dental caries
3. Dental morphology
.
.

67. AIMS & OBJECTIVES
1. To indicate the general and detailed eruption
pattern of different types of deciduous and
permanent teeth by variables such as sex, age
and economic status.
2. To indicate the general and detailed
prevalence of caries in both deciduous &
permanent teeth by above variables
3. To indicate the general & detailed frequency
occurrence of various morphological traits.

68. Deciduous & permanent dental eruption
 The times of onset as well as completion of
eruption are earlier in females than males
 Mandibular teeth precedes over maxillary teeth
in both sexes
 Teeth eruption is fast in higher income group
children

69. Dental caries – deciduous dentition
By sex
 Male children (33.4%)>female children( 26.8% )
By income
 Lower income group > upper income group
By age
 Central incisors –5 years
 Lateral incisors – 3 years
 Canines – 6 years
 First & second molars – 7 to 10 years

70. Dental caries – permanent dentition
By sex
 Difference is insignificant (females > males )
By income
 Upper income group > middle & lower
By age
 Incisors – 22 to 23 years
 Canines – free from the disease
 Premolars & molars – 22-23 years

71. Dental morphology
Supernumerary teeth
Permanent dentition ( 0.86% ) >
deciduous dentition ( 0.06% )
Maxilla > mandible – Ruffer ( 1920 )
Carabelli’s anomaly
35% out of total deciduous teeth& 27% of
permanent dentition
Female > male

72. Dental morphology
Crowding
both dentitions
Female > male
Diastema
Deciduous teeth > permanent teeth
-Male > female

73. “Epidemological transition”
Phenomenon of changes in frequencies of
certain serious diseases – omeron (1971)
‘diseases of civilisation’
or
‘western diseases’ – Trowell & Burkitt

74. “Epidemolodic transition in minor diseases”
 Chronic allergy – cow’s milk, dust, pollution and
food additives
 Oral breathing – facial collapse syndrome
- narrowing of the upper arch
- buccal cross bites

75. Bite force studies
normal adult chewing – 15-17kg of force
maximum - 28-39kg of force
Bite force is relevant to the functional aspects of
dento-facial dysplasia.
Ordinary chewing and maximum bite forces were
significantly higher among more traditional rural
Punjabi youths than among urban youths
- Corruccini & Kaul

77.  Solution is the restoration of proper
function by means of chewing hard ,
fibrous foods – stimulate the masticatory
apparatus
- greater flow of the alkaline
saliva

78. Evolution of teeth
 Non mammalian vertebrates –
Polyphyodonty
 During growth of the animal – increase in
the jaw size is associated with tooth size
(Trout – number will increase )
 In mammals –Diphyodonty (2 dentitions )

79. Dentition of fishes ( agnatha )
EX; Sea lamprey
 No true calcified teeth
 Arranged circumferentially
 Horny teeth are also seen on the tongue

80. Chondrichthyes (bony fishes )
 All types of dental specialisations
 Homodont & polyphyodont
 Teeth are covered by enameloid
lower jaw of shark

81. osteochthyes
 Haplodont – prehention
 Polyphyodont
 Teeth- vomer, palatine bones roof of the
mouth & tongue

82. Amphibia
 Small, homodont, polyphyodont –
prehension
 In the frog – small teeth on the upper jaw
& no teeth on the lower jaw

83. Reptiles
 Homodont & polyphyodont
 Tend to be tricuspid or cone shaped
 Egg teeth – in embryos of lizards & snakes
- used to break the shell

84. Dentition of mammals
 Heterodont ( 4 types )
 Restricted to 2 rows
 Ability to masticate – improves digestive
efficiency for high rate of metabolism

85. Other features
 TMJ articulation
 Salivary glands
 Prismatic enamel
 Diphyodonty
 Secondary palate
 Significant muscle development

86. Dentition of protheria
 Spiny ant eater – edentulous
 Duck bulled platypus – 3 functional
posterior teeth in each jaw quadrant
 A No. additional teeth develop but do not
erupt or resorb

87. Metatheria
 An unusual feature – only last premolar
will have a successor
 Anteriorly many teeth are present but not
functional
 Morphology is same with placental
animals
 Dental formula – 3/3, 0/0, 1/1, 4/4

88. Eutheria
 Insectivoral
Ex; hedge hog
 Molars – primitive trabacular form with
sharp, high cusps which interdigitate with
those of the opposite jaw
 Suitable for crushing the shells of insects

89. Rodentia
Ex; rat
 Heterogenous
 Continuously growing incisors
 DF 1/1, 0/0. 0/0, 3/3

90. Carnivora
 Enlarged canines – offensive weapons
 More prominent specialisations are in cat
family

91. Primates
Prosimian
Ex; lemur
Herbivorous & insectivorous
DF – 2/2, 1/1, 3/3, 3/3
Lower incisors & canines are prominent
mid line diastema

92. Anthropoidea
 Macaca monkey
 DF – 2/2, 1/1, 2/2, 3/3
 Canines are long & prominent ( esp. in male )
 Lateral diastema

93. Differences between apes & man
Apes man
 ‘U’ shaped arches parabolic
 Edge to edge overlap of upper &
incisor relation lower incisors
 Male canines are no sexual dimorphism
large
 Lateral diastema no lateral diastema
 Pointed cusps rounded cusps

94. ANTHROPOSCOPY
Anthropos – human
Skopein - examine
 Judging the body by inspection
 Cannot be expressed numerically
 Head must be in the rest position – the
relationship of paired features will be
assessed

95. Criteria for judgment
 examiner’s esthetic perception &
experience
 Paired features are judged for level,
contour & size

96. Qualitative signs
 Head
1.Hairline – distinctive, indistinctive
2.Forehead – unilaterally protruding
forehead

97. Face
1. FACIAL PROFILE –
Normal Bird like Dish like

98. Shape of the face
Proportionate Long& short&
narrow wide

99. Shape of the face
square triangular trapezoid

100. Facial mid axis quality
In midline concave with dislocated
chin

101. Chin contour
Indented flat

102. ANTHROPOMETRY
“It is a systematised art of measuring and
taking observations of man, his skeleton,
his brain or other organs, by the most
reliable means and methods for scientific
purposes”
-ALES HRDLICKA

103. Anthropos -human &
metron -measure
Anthropometry represents the typical and
traditional tool of physical anthropology
Johann Friedrich Blumenbach (1752-1840)
3 types of head form
1. Square
2. Long
3. Laterally compressed

104. Broca, Flower, Turner further developed the study
of the skulls on the foundations laid by
Blumenbach
Father of Anthropometry – BROCA
Broca’s methods were universal until 1870
In 1874, Ihering pointed out the weaknesses in
Broca’s method
craniometric conferences were held at
Munich(1877) and Berlin(1880)

105. Kollmann, Ranke, and Virchow prepared a
scheme for craniometric techniques.
This was presented and approved at the 13th
general congress of the German
Anthropological Society held at Frankfurt
(1882)

106. SUBDIVISIONS OF ANTHROPOMETRY
 SOMATOMETRY -Living body including
head and face
 Osteometry -Skeletal long and short
bones
 Craniometry -Skull
 Physiometry -Bodily & mental
functions

107. MEASURING TOOLS & TECHNIQUES
REQUISITES
1. Should be accurate
2. Not easily distorted
3. Handy or easy to manipulate
4. Easily transportable for field work

108. sliding caliper - it measures
the linear projective distances
between 2 land marks in the
same plane
Ex; eye fissure length,mouth width
The standard instruments

109. 2. Spreading caliper
When the projective linear
distance has to be determined
between distant surfaces and
various planes
Ex; length of the head & width of the head

110. Soft metric tape
Used for determining the tangential linear
distances taken along the skin surface
between 2 land marks
Ex; maxillary & mandibular arcs of the face

111. Large double sliding calipers with levels
–used when measuring projective
distances involving the vertex and the
opisthocranion land marks of the head

112. Measuring tools with
various modifications
 Nose deviation
protractor
 Nostril inclination
protractor
 Nasal root and
alar- slope angle meter

113. Multipurpose
facial angle meter
 Pointed portion –measuring
nasofrontal,nasolabial, mentolabial angles
 Small & large forked portions – determining the
nasal tip & mentocervical angles

114. Commercial angle meter

115. Selection of subjects
Selection will be on the basis of
 Blood – 1.between individuals of same race
2. Between individuals of different race
 Normalcy – pathologic conditions & anomalies
alter the size, shape, & other characters
( rachtis, pagets disease, & clefts )
 Age & sex

116.  Age –
1. Eruption of teeth
2. Union of epiphysis
3. Condition of teeth
4. Condition of cranial structures - sutures
5. General condition of the weight of the
bones

117. Positioning the subject
Subjects to be seated in the dental chair
with the head resting on the head support
Head of the examiner must be level with the
head of the subject
Standard orientation of the head –FH plane
 Projective measurements

118. FACIAL MID LINE
3 anatomic points
 The nasion ( root of the nose )
 The subnasale (base of the columella )
 The gnathion / menton (lower edge of the
mandible

119. Land marks
‘Certain anatomic points used to take body
measurements’
Short abbreviations used instead of full names
( small letters )
ex; nasion – n
Land marks may have similar name but differ in
location
Ex; porion
To avoid errors – they should be marked on the
skin

120. Head
 Vertex – highest
point of the head
 Glabella – most
prominent midline
point between eyebrows
 Opisthocranion – most posterior point of the
line of greatest head length
 Eurion – the most prominent lateral point on
each side of the skull

121. Land marks

122. Measurements of head region
HORIZONTAL HEAD POSITION
1. Width of the head
– eu to eu
2. Width of the forehead
- ft to ft
3. Skull base width
- t to t

123. Perpendicular head position
1. Height of the culvarium – v-tr
2. Anterior height of the head
v-n
3. Specific height of the
head – v-en
4. Height of the head &
nose – v to sn
5. Combined height of
the head & face – v to gn

124.  Length of the head
g to op
 Circumference of
the head

125. Face
 Width of the face
zy to zy
 Width of the mandible
go to go

126.  Height of the upper
profile – tr to prn
 Height of the lower
profile – prn to gn
 Lower half of the
cranio- facial height – en to gn

127. Facial arc
measurements
 Supra-orbital arc
 Maxillary arc
 Mandibular arc

128.  Height of the mandibular
ramus – go to cdl
 Depth of the body
go to gn

129. Depth measurements of the face
1. Tragion-glabellar depth
2. Tragion-nasion depth
3. Tragion-subnasaledepth
4. Tragion-gnathion depth

130. Nose
 Nasofrontal angle
Angle between the proximal nasal bridge
contour and the anterior surface of the
forehead below the glabella

131.  Nasal tip angle
Angle between columella & nasal bridge

132.  Naso labial angle
( septolabial angle
or columella labial angle)
Angle between columella & upper lip skin

133. Lips & mouth
 Width of the mouth
( inter commisural
distance )
ch to ch

134.  Upper lip height
Sn to sto
 Height of the skin
portion of the upper lip
sn to ls
 Height of the skin
portion of the lower lip
li to sl
 Lower lip height - sto to sl

135.  Vermilion height of
the upper lip
ls to sto
 Vermilion height of
the lower lip
sto to li

136.  Labio mental angle – between skin
surface of the lower lip and the surface
contour of the chin

137. Sources of errors in
anthropometry & anthroposcopy
Commonest sources of error:
 Improper identification of landmarks
 Inadequate use of measuring equipment
 Improper measuring technique

138. anthropometry
Improper identification of land marks:
Soft tissue land marks – easy to locate in a
healthy person’ face & difficult in a deformed
face
Bony land marks – palpation
easy to locate – orbitale
difficult to locate – gonion
In congenitally deformed faces – reference to
adjacent structures

139. Head
 Vertex – depends upon the FH plane
 Eurion – difficult to locate on irregular surface
 Glabella – replaced by a point in the mid axis of
the face at the level of the upper ridge of the
eyebrows
 Trichion – difficult to locate in early childhood, &
at the first stages of baldness

140. Face
 Zygion – difficult to locate in 1st
& 2nd
brachial
arch syndromes
 Gonion – difficult if they are covered with thick
skin & hypo plastic mandible
 Pogonion – difficult in receding chin & ‘falso
pogonion protrusion’
 Gnathion – markedly receding lower jaw

141. Nose
 Nasion – difficult after injuries, noses with
silastic implants, deep naso-frontal angle
 Subnasale – at the bottom of the curve of the
curve but difficult to locate in sharp angle
 Pronasale – best viewed from profile
difficult in bifid nose with uneven tip
heights

142. Lips & mouth
 Stomion – mid point of the labial fissure
dislocated mouth- philtrum
 Labrale superious – position varies after surgery of cleft
lip
 Chelion – points at right & left commisures of the labial
fissure
difficult in older patients because of a fine
shallow ridge of the skin
repeated inspection

143. Problems with measuring tools
 Standard measurements are not used
 If they are used improperly
 examiner should be familiar with the areas
 Accuracy varies with instruments
sliding calipers – accurate
sliding calipers – up to 3mm error
tape –shortens the distance when pressed &
should be tightened to eliminate the effect of the
hair
fabric tape follows the contours of the face

144. Improper measuring technique
 POSITION OF THE HEAD – improper measurements
( especially projective measurements )
 Head tends to return to the rest position during
examination – must be checked before measurement
 50
to 100
of error in inclination
 In patients with asymmetric FHs, the difference between
two horizontals must be assessed
Farkas – left FH is closer to the rest position

145. FACIAL MID LINE – border between right & left
halves
Errors can be made in judging the facial
asymmetry
Nasion is the most stable point
The heights will be changed with expressions on
the face ( crying, smiling )

146. Anthroposcopy
 Errors result from
1. Incorrect positioning of the patient’s
head
2. Wrong angle of view of the examiner’s
eyes
3. Poor lighting
4. Poor esthetic assessment & talent

147. Head
Visual judgment of the height of the fore head
depends on the
1. Position of the head during inspection
2. Inclination of the fore head
3. Position of the ears
Face
 Lower face height would appear small in the
presence of a receding mandible

148. Lips & mouth
Frontal view – size of the upper lip depends
on the naso-labial angle & the position of
the skin surface
Curved nasolabial angle & protruding skin –
short upper lip
Vertical upper lip & obtuse angle – longer lip

149. Nose

150. Applied anthropometry

151. Anthropometry
in cleft lip & palate patients
 Combined orthodontic & surgical
treatment
 Poor esthetics and nasal deformity
( displacement of the soft tissue
elements )
 Esthetics – no uniform definition
 Goals - Balance & harmony
 Accepted standards

152.  Common technique – visual assessment
based on the rating scale
- subjective & unreliable
 Radiographic cephalometry
 Photographs
 Physical anthropometry – objective
documentation of facial features
- determination of need for surgery
-comparison of facial features before &
after surgery

153.  Morphological study of growth patterns of
nasolabial region – Farkas
 6 measurements in 1593 north American
Caucasians ( 1 to 18 yrs )
 Age 1 – highest growth of the cutaneous portion
of the upper lip & width of the nose
 Age 5 – upper lip reaches adult size
 Age 14 to 15 – nose is fully developed

154. In craniomaxillo- facial surgery
“Anthropometry is the objective analysis
that replaces subjective judgement”
 Mean , standard deviations of key facial
measurements at varied ages
 Rate of growth of each facial region
 Growth completion of each region
 Times of maturation

155.  Diagnosis of dysmorphology
 Treatment of syndromic patients
 In cosmetic surgery
 Reconstructive surgery
 Ortyhognathic surgery

156. In forensic medicine
 Identification of missing children
age 8 age 18