5. Cornea
Reasons of refraction:
Curvature.
Significant difference in refractive indices of air
and cornea.
6. Vertical diameter slightly less than horizontal
Front apical radius 7.7 mm K= 48.83 D
Back apical radius 6.8 mm K=-5.88 D
Actual refractive index cornea= 1.376
Power of cornea +43D (2/3 of total eye power)
Not optically homogenous (ground
substance)=1.354, n(collagen)=1.47
7. The anterior chamber
Cavity between cornea and iris
Filled with aqueous humor.
Depth of AC – about 2.5-4.0 mm
Change in AC depth change the total power. 1mm
forward shift of lens- increase about 1.4D in power
Refractive index of aqueous humor= 1.336
8. Iris and Pupil
• 2-4mm
Average
size:
• depth of focus increases
• Concept used as pin hole test in refractionSmall pupil
• Retinal image quality improves
• Size of blue circle increasesLarge pupil
•Regulate amount of light entering the eye
•At 2.4mm pupil size, best retinal image obtained,
as aberration and diffraction are balanced.
9. The crystalline lens
• Birth 3.5 – 4 mm
• Adult life 4.75 – 5 mm
Thickness
• Ant surface 10 mm
• Post surface 6 mm
Radius of curvature
• Nucleus 1.41
• Pole 1.385
• Equator 1.375
Refractive index of lens
• 15 -18 d.Total power
• At birth- 14-16 D
• At 25yrs- 7-8D
• At 50yrs- 1-2D
Accommodative power
10. Lens accounts for about one third of the refraction
of the eye.
ACCOMODATION
Provides a mechanism of focusing at different
distances.
OPTICAL CHANGES IN CATARACTOUS LENS
Visual Acuity reduction.
Myopic shift.
Monocular diplopia.
Glare.
Color shift.
12. Retina
Maximum resolving power at fovea.
A concave spherical surface with r =-12 mm.
Advantages of curvature of retina over plane image
forming surfaces of cameras and optical
instruments:
The curved images formed by the optical system
is brought in the right order.
A much wider field of view is covered by the
steeply curved retina
13. Schematic eye and reduced eyes
• Two principal foci
• Two principal points
• Two nodal points
Gullstrand’s
schematic
eye:
• Two principal foci
• Single principal
• Single nodal point
Listing’s
reduced
eye:
14. Schematic and reduced eyes
It is a theoretical optical specification of an
idealized eye, retaining average dimensions but
omitting the complications.
Useful for understanding ophthalmologic problem
and conceptualizing the optical properties of the
human eye.
To calculate cardinal points, the radii of curvature
and distances separating the refracting surfaces
must be known.
16. OPTICAL AXIS: line passing through centre of
cornea, lens and meets retina on nasal side of
fovea
VISUAL AXIS: line joining fixation point, nodal
point and fovea
FIXATION AXIS: line joining fixation point and
centre of rotation
17. Visual angles
ANGLE ALFA:angle formed between visual axis
and optical axis at the nodal point
ANGLE GAMMA:angle between optical axis and
fixation axis at the centre of rotation
ANGLE KAPPA:angle between visual axis and
pupillary line. Point on centre of cornea is
considered as centre of pupil.
18. Optical aberrations
Diffraction of light
Spherical aberrations
Chromatic aberrations
Decentering
Oblique aberrations
Coma
20. Spherical aberrations
A convex spherical lens refracts peripheral rays
more strongly than paraxial rays, so peripheral
rays are focused closer.
21. Why less in human eyes???
Human cornea is periphery is flatter than centre.
In human lens, central portions have greater
density and greater curvature.
Iris blocks the peripheral rays, only paraxial rays
enter the system.
23. Why less in human eyes???
Due to narrow spectral sensitivity bands of long
and mid wavelength cones.
Foveal lack of blue cones.
24. Decentering
Lens is usually slightly decentred.
Corneal centre of curvature is situated about
0.25mm below the axis of lens.
Clinically insignificant.
25. Oblique aberrations
When the object is in peripheral visual field, a thin
incident narrow pencil of rays enter limited by the
pupil.
Peripheral portion of lens forms Sturm’s conoid, so
two line foci are formed.
Minimum in human lens due to curvature of
retina.
Significant in biconvex/biconcave lens.
29. REFRACTIVE ERRORS
• Ametropia: a refractive error is present
• Myopia: Near sightedness
• Hyperopia(Hypermetropia): Far sightedness
• Presbyopia: Loss of accommodative ability of the lens resulting in
difficulties with near tasks
• Astigmatism: the curvature of the cornea and/or lens is not spherical and
therefore causes image blur on the retina
30. REFRACTIVE ERRORS
• Anisometropia: a refractive power difference between the 2 eyes (> 2D)
• Aniseikonia: a difference of image size between the 2 eyes as perceived
by the patient
• Aphakia: (Phakos=lens), aphakia is no lens
• Pseudophakia: artificial lens in the eye
31. Myopia
A form of refractive error in which parallel rays of
light entering the eye are focused in front of retina
with accommodation being at rest.
32.
33. Etiological types
Axial(MC)-increased AP length of eyeball
Curvatural-increased curvature of cornea, lens or
both
Index-increased refractive index of lens with
nuclear sclerosis
Positional-anterior placement of lens
Myopia due to excessive accommodation
34. Clinical types of myopia
Congenital
Simple or developmental
Degenerative or pathological
Acquired
35. Congenital myopia
Common in premature babies or with birth defects
Stationary(8-10D)
Associated with
Increase in axial length
Esotropia
Other congenital anomalies of eye
Early and full correction under cycloplegia
Poor prognosis in unilateral cases with severe
myopia and anisometropia
36. Simple myopia
Physiological/school myopia
Commonest type
Results due to normal biological variations
in development of eye
Age of onset- 7-10yrs
Moderate severity-<5D,never exceeds8D
No degenerative changes
37. Degenerative myopia
Progressive in nature
Related to heredity, general growth process
Heredity linked growth of retina
Factors affecting general growth process
Age of onset-early adult life
Severe->6D
38. Pathophysiology
Genetic factors
More growth of
retina
Stretching of
sclera
Increased axial
length
Degeneration of
choroid
Degeneration of
retina
Degeneration of
vitreous
General growth
process
Degenerative
changes in sclera
Decrease
d vision
46. Clinical features - Symptoms
Distant blurred vision
Half shutting of eyes
Asthenopic symptoms
Muscae volitantes
Night blindness
Divergent squint
47. Signs
Prominent eyeballs
Large cornea
Anterior chamber is deep
Large & sluggishly reacting pupil
Fundus examination-changes seen only in
pathological myopia
49. Optical treatment
Minimum acceptance providing maximum vision
Low myopia(<6D):
Young children : glasses required only if
Isometropia
<2years ≥ -4.0D
2-3years ≥ -3.0D
Anisometropia:
≥ -2.5D
Give full correction under cycloplegia
Avoid overcorrection
50. Adults:
<30years-full correction
>30years-less than full correction with which patient is
comfortable for near vision.
HIGH MYOPIA
under correction is done to avoid
near vision problem
minification of images
contact lenses are better(to avoid image minification)
53. Hypermetropia
It is the refractive state of eye where in parallel rays of
light coming from infinity are focused behind the
sensitive layer of retina with accommodation being at
rest
54.
55. Etiological types
Axial(m.c)-decreased AP diameter of eyeball
Curvatural-flattening of cornea, lens or both
Index –old age, diabetics under treatment
Positional-posteriorly placed lens
Absence of lens-aphakia
57. SIMPLE HYPERMETROPIA
Commonest form
Results from normal biological variations in the
development of eyeball
Include axial and curvatural HM
May be hereditary
58. PATHOLOGICAL HYPERMETROPIA
Anomalies lie outside the limits of biological variation
Acquired hypermetropia
Decrease curvature of outer lens fibers in old age
Cortical sclerosis
Positional hypermetropia
Aphakia
Consecutive hypermetropia
59. FUNCTIONAL HYPERMETROPIA
Results from paralysis of accommodation
Seen in patients with 3rd nerve paralysis &
internal ophthalmoplegia
60. TOTAL HYPERMETROPIA
It is the total amount of refractive error,estimated after
complete cycloplegia with atropine
Divided into latent & manifest
61. LATENT HYPERMETROPIA
Corrected by inherent tone of ciliary muscle
Usually about 1D
High in children
Decreases with age
Revealed after abolishing tone of ciliary muscle with
atropine
62. MANIFEST HYPERMETROPIA
Remaining part of total hypermetropia
Correct by accommodation and convex
lens
Consists of facultative & absolute
FACULTATIVE HYPERMETROPIA
Corrected by patients accommodative
effort
ABSOLUTE HYPERMETROPIA
Residual part not corrected by patients
accommodative effort
64. NORMAL AGE VARIATION
At birth +2+3D HM
Slightly increase in one year of life,
Gradually diminished by the age 5-10 years
In old age after 50 year again tendency to
HM
Tone of ciliary muscle decreases
Accommodative power decreases
Some amount of latent HM become
manifest
More amount of facultative HM become
absolute
65. SYMPTOMS
Principal symptom is blurring of vision for
close work
Symptoms vary depending upon age of patient
& degree of refractive error
Asymptomatic
Asthenopic symptoms
Defective vision with asthenopia
Defective vision only
66. SIGNS
VISUAL ACUITY : Defective
EYEBALL: small or normal in size
CORNEA : may be smaller than normal. There can be
CORNEA PLANA
ANTERIOR CHAMBER : may be shallow
LENS: could be dislocated backwards
A Scan ultrasonography (biometry) reveal short axial
length
67. FUNDUS:
A) DISC: Dark reddish color, irregular
margins ,confused with Papillitis so termed
as PSEUDO-PAPILLITIS
B) MACULA: Situated further from the disc
than usual, large positive angle
alpha, apparent divergent squint
C) BLOOD VESSELS: Show undue tortuosity
& abnormal branchings
D) BACKGROUND: SHOT- SILK RETINA
68. COMPLICATIONS
Recurrent styes,blepharitis or chalazion
Accomidative convergent squint
Amblyopia
Anisometropic
Strabismic
Uncorrected bilateral high hypermetropia
Predisposition to develop primary narrow angle
glaucoma
Care should be taken while instilling
mydriatics
70. Young children(<6 or 7yrs)
Some degree of hypermetropia is physiological so no
correction
Treatment required if error is high or strabismus is
present
working in school small error may require
correction
In children error tends normally to diminish with
growth so refraction should be carried out every six
month and if necessary the correction should be
reduced, ortherwise a lens which is overcorrecting
their error may induce an artificial myopia
No deduction of tonus allowance in strabismus
71. Adults
If symptoms of eye-strain are marked,we correct as
much of the total hypermetropia as possible,trying
as far as we can to relieve the accommodation
When there is spasm of accommodation we
correct the whole of the error
Some patients with hypermetropia do not initially
tolerate the full correction indicated by manifest
refraction so we under correct them
Exophoria hyperopia should be under correct by 1
to 2D
72. Patients with absolute hypermetropia are
more likely to accept nearly the full
correction because they typically experience
immediate improvement in visual acuity
In pathological hypermetropia the
underlying cause rather than the
hypermetropia is chief concern
74. SPECTACLES
Basic principle
Prescribe convex lenses (Plus lenses) so that rays
are brought to focus on the retina
Advantages
Comfortable
Easier method
Less expensive
Safe idea
77. REFRACTIVE SURGERY
Refractive surgery is not as effective as in myopia
TYPES
Hexagonal keratometry
Laser thermal keratoplasty
Photo refractive keratectomy
LASIK
Photorefrctive keratectomy
Phakic IOL and clear lens extraction
79. Physiologic loss of accommodation in
advancing age
deposit of insoluble proteins in lens in
advancing age-->elasticity of lens
progressively decrease-->decrease
accommodation
around years of age , accommodation
become less than D-->reading is possible at
- cm-->difficultly reading fine print
, headache , visual fatigue
80. Increasing Near Point of Accommodation
with Age
Age (years) Distance (cm)
10 7
20 10
30 14
40 20
50 40
81. SYMPTOMS
The need to hold reading material at
arm's length.
Blurred near vision
Headache
Fatigue
Symptoms worse in dim light.
85. ASTIGMATISM
A defect of an optical
system causing light rays
from a point source to fail
to meet in a focal point
resulting in a blurred and
imperfect image.
86. Conus of Sturm:-
Geometric configuration of light rays emanating
from single point source & refracted by
spherocylindrical lens
87. Focal interval of Sturm :-
Distance between 2 focal
lines
Circle of least diffusion
At the dioptric mean of focal lines the cross section of
sturms conoid appears as circular patch of light rays –
best overall focus
88. Types
Regular astigmatism – change in refractive
power is uniform from one meridian to
another
With-the-rule astigmatism
Against-the-rule astigmatism
Oblique astigmatism
Bi-oblique astigmatism
Irregular astigmatism –Irregular change of
refractive power in different meredia
91. Regular Astigmatism :
Correctable by Spherocylindrical lenses
Etiology :
1. Corneal - abnormalities of curvature [common]
2. Lenticular is rare. It may be:
i. Curvatural - abnormalities of curvature of
lens as seen in lenticonus.
ii. Positional - tilting or oblique placement of
lens , subluxation.
3. Retinal - oblique placement of macula [rare]
92. • Symptoms :
Blurring of vision
Asthenopic symptoms
Tilting of head
Squinting [Half closure of eyelid]
95. Guidelines for optical treatment
Small astigmatism- treatment is required
In presence of asthenopic symptoms
Decreased vision
• High astigmatism- full correction
• Better to avoid new astigmatic correction in
adults because of intolerable distraction
• Bi-oblique,mixed,high astigmatism are better
treated by contact lenses
• Correction of spherical component
100. Astigmatism correction requires prescription of
convex cylindrical lenses at 180 +/- 20 deg or
concave cylindrical lenses at 90 +/- 20 deg with the
rule and vice versa
101. Contact lenses
Toric contact lenses
Soft lenses [SL]
Rigid gas permeable lenses
[RGP]
RGP do not conform to the asymmetry of corneal
surface but replaces it totally and also provides
clarity of vision ,more durable.
Soft lenses are more comfortable to wear ,easy to
fit, adhere more tightly to cornea .
102. Refractive surgeries
Astigmatic Keratotomy
Photoastigmatic refractive Keratectomy [PRK]
Relaxing incisions with compression sutures
LASIK surgery
103. Residual astigmatism :
The amount of astigmatism that still
remains after correction of a refractive error.
In the case of correction of corneal
astigmatism using rigid contact lens
,lenticular residual astigmatism is exposed.
104. Anisometropia
Difference in refractive power between eyes
refractive correction often leads to different
image sizes on the retinas( aniseikonia)
aniseikonia depend on degree of refractive
anomaly and type of correction
closer to the site of refraction deficit the
correction is made-->less retinal image
changes in size
105. Anisometropia
Glasses : magnified or minified 2% per 1 D
Contact lens : change less than glasses
Tolerate aniseikonia ~ 5-8%
Symptoms : usually congenital and often
asymptomatic
Treatment
anisometropia > D-->contact lens
unilateral aphakia-->contact lens or intraocular
lens