research methodologies in architecture

M.ARCH (ENVIRONMENTAL ARCHITECTURE)
RESEARCH METHODOLOGIES IN ARCHITECTURE
SUBMITTED TO
SUBMITTED BY
TADIBOINA SAMANTHA KUMAR
SEMESTER 2

CONTENTS
OBJECTIVES:
● To introduce the students to the importance of critical inquiry as a way of gaining knowledge
and adding to it through research.
● To expose the students to the various forms of research and research methodologies/
processes.
● To engage this understanding in the specific field of architectural research.
UNIT I INTRODUCTION
➔ Basic research issues and concepts
➔ orientation to research process
Types of research
➔ historical, qualitative, correlational ,experimental, simulation and modeling, Logical
and argumentation, case study and mixed methods
➔ illustration using research samples
UNIT II RESEARCH PROCESS
➔ Elements of Research process:
➔ finding a topic- writing an introduction
➔ stating a purpose of study identifying key research questions and hypotheses
➔ reviewing literature,using theory defining ,delimiting and stating the significance of the
study,
➔ advanced methods and procedures for data collection and analysis
UNIT III RESEARCHING AND DATA COLLECTION
➔ Library and archives
➔ Internet: New information and the role of internet
➔ finding and evaluating sources
➔ misuse- test for reliability- ethics
Methods of data collection
➔ From primary sources
➔ observation and recording, interviews, structured and unstructured, questionnaire,
open ended and close ended questions and the advantages, sampling
➔ Problems encountered in collecting data from secondary sources.
UNIT IV REPORT WRITING
➔ Research writing in general
➔ Components: referencing
➔ writing the bibliography
➔ Developing the outline
➔ presentation.
UNIT V CASE STUDIES
➔ Case studies in the relevant discipline illustrating how good research can be used from
project inception to completion
➔ review of research publications.
OUTCOMES:
● The student will develop the skill to identify, decipher and interpret issues relating to
architecture based on research enquiry methods.
● The student will gain knowledge of different methods of conducting research and research
writing.

UNIT I INTRODUCTION
MEANING OF RESEARCH
Research in common parlance refers to a search for knowledge.
Once can also define research as a scientific and systematic search for pertinent information on a specific topic.
In fact, research is an art of scientific investigation.
1 Redman and Mory define research as a “systematized effort to gain new knowledge.”
2 Some people consider research as a movement, a movement from the known to the unknown. It is actually a
voyage of discovery.
Research is an academic activity and as such the term should be used in a technical sense.
According to Clifford Woody research comprises defining and redefining problems, formulating hypothesis or
suggested solutions; collecting, organising and evaluating data; making deductions and reaching conclusions;
OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH
The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions through the application of scientific procedures.
The main aim of research is to find out the truth which is hidden and which has not been discovered as yet.
1. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it
(studies with this object in view are termed as exploratory or formulative research studies);
2. To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a group
(studies with this object in view are known as descriptive research studies);
3. To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated with something else
(studies with this object in view are known as diagnostic research studies);
4. To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables
(such studies are known as hypothesis-testing research studies).
➔ Basic research issues and concepts
Basic research designs can be seen from the issues associated with
1. The decision about the purpose of the study (exploratory, descriptive, hypothesis testing),
2. Where the research will conducted (i. e, study setting),
3. The type of research that should be (kind of investigation),
4. The extent to which researchers manipulated and control research (researcher interference level),
5. The temporal aspects research (time horizon),
6. And the rate at which data will be analyzed (if the unit of analysis), is an integral part of the research
design.
➔ orientation to research process
“Research-oriented process is a concept of process that revolves around inquisitive, problem-oriented and
critical thinking, autonomous and creative working and practical application in academic research.
The concept of research-oriented learning encompasses the unity of research and teaching: education through
science. Research-oriented learning needs guidance.
There is no one best way to do research. The strategy that works best for the problem you are studying won't
necessarily work for someone else's problem. Instead of prescribing a set of specific methods for research.

Types of research
➔ historical,qualitative,correlational,experimental, simulation and modeling, Logical and
argumentation, case study and mixed methods
➔ Historical research,
Historical research is that which utilizes historical sources like documents, remains, etc. to study events or ideas
of the past, including the philosophy of persons and groups at any remote point of time.
➔ Qualitative research,
Quantitative vs. Qualitative: Quantitative research is based on the measurement of quantity or amount.
It is applicable to phenomena that can be expressed in terms of quantity.
Qualitative research, is concerned with qualitative phenomenon, i.e., phenomena relating to or involving quality
or kind.
For instance, when we are interested in investigating the reasons for human behaviour (i.e., why people think or
do certain things), we quite often talk of ‘Motivation Research’, an important type of qualitative research. This
type of research aims at discovering the underlying motives and desires, using in depth interviews for the
purpose.

➔ Correlational,
Broadly speaking, each study sought to clarify patterns of relationships between two or more variables, that is,
factors involved in the circumstances under study.
Within the general framework of correlational research, as described in the previous section, two major subtypes
can be identified:
(1) relationship and
(2) causal comparative.
➔ experimental,
Experimental Research - An attempt by the researcher to maintain control over all factors that may affect the
result of an experiment. In doing this, the researcher attempts to determine or predict what may occur.
Steps involved in conducting an experimental study
● Identify and define the problem.
● Formulate hypotheses and deduce their consequences.
● Construct an experimental design that represents all the elements, conditions, and relations of the
consequences.
1. Select sample of subjects.
2. Group or pair subjects.
3. Identify and control non experimental factors.
4. Select or construct, and validate instruments to measure outcomes.
5. Conduct pilot study.
6. Determine place, time, and duration of the experiment.
● Conduct the experiment.
● Compile raw data and reduce to usable form.
● Apply an appropriate test of significance.
Methods of Experimental Control
● Physical Control
Gives all subjects equal exposure to the independent variable.
Controls non experimental variables that affect the dependent variable.
● Selective Control - Manipulate indirectly by selecting in or out variables that cannot be controlled.
● Statistical Control - Variables not conducive to physical or selective manipulation may be controlled
by statistical techniques
.

➔ simulation and modeling,
Simulation research comes out of a broader human fascination with the replication (mimesis, imitation) of
real-world objects and settings.
simulation’s very goal is to create “copies” of reality.
How accurate are the copies?
What do copies of real things leave out about those real things?
Applied to simulation research, this is one of its strengths:
we can learn about earthquakes without loss of life;
we can learn to fly airplanes without fear of crashing;
we can simulate an entire bustling city without the expense of actually building it.
This is another ubiquitous word used in simulation research.
In simulation terms, a model is the overall system that simulates the reality being studied.
A model can exist in a variety of forms:
1. from a mathematical model comprised of abstract numerical expressions,
2. to laboratory spaces outfitted (for instance) into conference rooms to test lighting,
3. to what architects still most often think about when the word model is used, small-scale
three-dimensional representations of actual spaces
➔ Logical and argumentation,
Logical argumentation entails the framing of broad explanatory theories.
Of course, theoretical thinking permeates any research design. But when a broad explanatory theory is itself the
targeted outcome of a research endeavor, most likely the strategy used to get there is logical argumentation.
logical argumentation exhibits: the enumeration of first principles.
A first principle is a fundamental proposition that is so self-evident that it need not be derived from even more
elemental proofs.
First principles are therefore logical building blocks by which, or upon which, broad explanatory theories can be
constructed.
But we noted that this strategy comes closest to philosophical inquiry

➔ case study
“A case study is an empirical inquiry that investigates a contemporary phenomenon within its real-life context,
especially when the boundaries between phenomenon and context are not clearly evident.”
An empirical inquiry that investigates a phenomenon or setting.
What, then, are the primary identifying characteristics of the case study?
Briefly, the five particularly salient characteristics are:
(1) a focus on either single or multiple cases, studied in their real-life contexts;
(2) the capacity to explain causal links;
(3) the importance of theory development in the research design phase;
(4) a reliance on multiple sources of evidence, with data converging in a triangular fashion; and
(5) the power to generalize to theory.
➔ mixed methods
1 A Combined Strategy: A Two-Phase Design
As the term itself suggests, a two-phase research design involves combining two or more strategies in a
sequence of distinct phases. The advantage of such an approach is that the particular procedures and standards
associated with each strategy can be presented fully and distinctly. A possible disadvantage is the potential for a
perceived lack of connection or coherence if the strategies are not conceptually well Linked.
2 A Combined Strategy: A Dominant–Less Dominant Design
As its name suggests, the dominant–less dominant design entails the insertion of one type of research design
within the framework of a distinctly different research design.

The advantage of this design is that it offers the potential of maintaining the overall coherence of the study as it
is vested in the dominant research design. The less dominant design is then used to provide greater depth and/or
validity concerning a particular aspect of the study. The consequent disadvantage is that the full and potentially
complementary strengths of the less dominant design will not be fully realized.
3 A Combined Strategy: Mixed-Methodology Design
The mixed-methodology design represents the most complete level of integration among two or more research
designs.
In this model, the researcher would conduct aspects of both strategies in roughly comparable sequences, and
with approximately equal degrees of emphasis.
The advantage of such an approach is that presumably the strengths of each research design will complement
each other, while the weaknesses of each design will be substantially offset.
Types of research can be looked at from three different perspectives
1. applications of the findings of the research study;
2. objectives of the study;
3. mode of enquiry used in conducting the study.
For example, a research project may be classified as
pure or applied research (from the perspective of application),
as descriptive, correlational, explanatory or exploratory (from the perspective of objectives) and
as qualitative or quantitative (from the perspective of the enquiry mode employed).

Types of research: application perspective
If you examine a research endeavour from the perspective of its application,
there are two broad categories: pure research and applied research.
Pure research involves developing and testing theories and hypotheses that are intellectually challenging to the
researcher but may or may not have practical application at the present time or in the future. Thus such work
often involves the testing of hypotheses containing very abstract and specialised concepts.
Pure research is also concerned with the development, examination, verification and refinement of research
methods, procedures, techniques and tools that form the body of research methodology.
Most of the research in the social sciences is applied. In other words, the research techniques, procedures and
methods that form the body of research methodology are applied to the collection of information about various
aspects of a situation, issue, problem or phenomenon so that the information gathered can be used in other ways
– such as for policy formulation, administration and the enhancement of understanding of a phenomenon.
Types of research: objectives perspective
If you examine a research study from the perspective of its objectives, broadly a research endeavour can be
classified as descriptive, correlational, explanatory or exploratory.
1.A research study classified as a descriptive study attempts to describe systematically a situation, problem,
phenomenon, service or programme, or provides information about, say, the living conditions of a community,
or describes attitudes towards an issue.
For example, it may attempt to describe the types of service provided by an organisation, the administrative
structure of an organisation, the living conditions of Aboriginal people in the outback, the needs of a
community, what it means to go through a divorce, how a child feels living in a house with domestic violence,
or the attitudes of employees towards management.
The main purpose of such studies is to describe what is prevalent with respect to the issue/problem under study.
2.The main emphasis in a correlational study is to discover or establish the existence of a
relationship/association/interdependence between two or more aspects of a situation.
What is the impact of an advertising campaign on the sale of a product?
What is the relationship between stressful living and the incidence of heart attack?
What is the relationship between fertility and mortality?
What is the relationship between technology and unemployment?
What is the effect of a health service on the control of a disease, or the home environment on educational
achievement?
These studies examine whether there is a relationship between two or more aspects of a situation or
phenomenon and, therefore, are called correlational studies.
3.Explanatory research attempts to clarify why and how there is a relationship between two aspects of a
situation or phenomenon.
This type of research attempts to explain,
for example, why stressful living results in heart attacks;
why a decline in mortality is followed by a fertility decline;
how the home environment affects children’s level of academic achievement.

4.exploratory research.
This is when a study is undertaken with the objective either to explore an area where little is known or to
investigate the possibilities of undertaking a particular research study.
It is usually carried out when a researcher wants to explore areas about which s/he has little or no knowledge. A
small-scale study is undertaken to decide if it is worth carrying out a detailed investigation. On the basis of the
assessment made during the exploratory study, a full study may eventuate. Exploratory studies are also
conducted to develop, refine and/or test measurement tools and procedures.
Types of research: mode of enquiry perspective
The third perspective in our typology of research concerns the process you adopt to find answers to your
research questions.
Broadly, there are two approaches to enquiry:
1. the structured approach;
2. the unstructured approach.
In the structured approach everything that forms the research process
– objectives, design, sample, and the questions that you plan to ask of respondents – is predetermined.
The unstructured approach, by contrast, allows flexibility in all these aspects of the process.
The structured approach is more appropriate to determine the extent of a problem, issue or phenomenon,
whereas the unstructured approach is predominantly used to explore its nature, in other words,
variation/diversity per se in a phenomenon, issue, problem or attitude towards an issue.
The structured approach to enquiry is usually classified as quantitative research and unstructured as qualitative
research.
The choice between quantitative and qualitative approaches (or structured or unstructured) should depend upon:
Aim of your enquiry – exploration, confirmation or quantification.
Use of the findings – policy formulation or process understanding.
1. A study is classified as qualitative if the purpose of the study is primarily to describe a situation,
phenomenon, problem or event;
2. if the information is gathered through the use of variables measured on nominal or ordinal scales
(qualitative measurement scales);
3. if the analysis is done to establish the variation in the situation, phenomenon or problem without
quantifying it.
4. The description of an observed situation, the historical enumeration of events, an account of the
different opinions people have about an issue, and a description of the living conditions of a
community are examples of qualitative research.
1. On the other hand, the study is classified as quantitative if you want to quantify the variation in a
phenomenon, situation, problem or issue;
2. if information is gathered using predominantly quantitative variables;
3. and if the analysis is geared to ascertain the magnitude of the variation.
Examples of quantitative aspects of a research study are:
● How many people have a particular problem?
● How many people hold a particular attitude?
The use of statistics is not an integral part of a quantitative study.

UNIT II RESEARCH PROCESS
➔ Elements of Research process:
THE RESEARCH PROCESS
Stage 1. Selection of topic
The stage that will take up most, if not all of your time at the beginning is that of selecting a topic, and
developing a preliminary research question and set of objectives. The selection of your research question is a
crucial stage,as an in appropriate topic or question will often lead to irretrievable difficulties later in the
research, so it is worth dealing with this stage carefully.
It is unlikely that you will develop a final question and set of objectives at this stage of the research process, and
the following two stages are important in developing and assessing your question more fully.

Stage 2. Reviewing the literature
A literature review essentially consists of critically reading, evaluating and organising existing literature on the
topic to assess the state of knowledge in the area. During this stage you should aim to become an 'expert' in your
field of research.
Reading widely may also alert you to other helpful factors, such as whether similar research has already been
carried out, show you the types of findings that you could expect, or provide descriptions of the theoretical
frameworks and previous methodologies adopted by others doing similar research.
Stage 3. Development of theoretical and conceptual frameworks
As you read the literature, you should be continually developing and refining your theoretical and conceptual
frameworks. This is a stage that can often be overlooked in the haste to collect data. It is, however, a vital part of
the research process, and is important in alerting you to potential problems before they occur. Your theoretical
framework refers to the underlying theoretical approach that you adopt to underpin your study, for example
social learning theory, or theories of self-efficacy.
Stage 4. Clarification of the research question
Stages1, 2 and 3 of the research process will initially, in many cases,become a circular process, whereby initial
research questions are chosen, investigated and often rejected for a number of reasons, for example:
● The question lacks sufficient focus.
● The conceptual framework has identified problems in either defining and/or measuring the appropriate
concepts.
● There are too many moderating or intervening variables. The project is unfeasible in terms of
complexity, access,facilities or resources.
Stages1 to 3 can take longer than initially anticipated, and you may well become discouraged by a lack of
success in identifying a good research question or hypothesis.
There are no easy methods to come up with an appropriate question, and it can be very much a case of
perseverance. Once you have developed a good, focused research question, then the rest of the research process
is based upon answering that specific question.
The importance of developing a clearly focused question and set of research objectives at this stage cannot be
overstated.
Stage 5. Research design
Once the focused research question has been ascertained, the next stage is to consider"two questions:
1 What data do I need to collect to answer this question?
2 What is the best way to collect this data?
Breaking this down into more detail, the issues faced by the researcher are:
● What overall research design should I use?
● Will i, for example, use a cross sectional, experimental or longitudinal design?
● Will I need to collect primary data, or will there be suitable secondary data to use?
● What methods, for example interviews, questionnaire survey sand so on, will be the best ones to collect
the primary data?
● Who should participate in the research, and how will i gain access to them?
● What are the exact procedures that I should adopt in my data collection to ensure reliability and
validity?
Stage 6. Data collection
Once the issues identified in stages 4 and 5 of the research process have been addressed, then you should have a
clear idea of what data to collect, and how to collect it. You have to consider which methodology to choose, and
which methods to utilise within the methodology.

Stage 7. Data analysis and discussion of the findings
The data you collect in stage 6 needs to be analysed to provide answers to your research question. Methods of
data analysis should always be related to the objectives of the research, that is your analysis should answer the
research question or hypothesis. In your discussion of the results,reference should also be made back to the
literature reviewed in stage 2; for example, how do the findings add to this literature? Do they support the
literature? If not, what are the possible reasons why? A common fault is to discuss the findings with no
reference back to the literature reviewed as part of stage 2 of the development of the conceptual framework.
Stage 8. Drawing conclusions
This should relate back to the focused research question. Here, the answer to the research question(s) should be
clearly stated. You can evaluate how successful you have been in achieving your research objectives, and
highlight the strengths and weaknesses of the research. You may also want to make recommendations for further
research.
1. Research is not just about the collection of data. Data collection is important, but it is simply part of a
wider process - the research process.
2. The research process follows 8 steps: selection of topic, reviewing the literature, developing your
theoretical and conceptual frameworks, clarifying your research question, developing a research design,
collecting data, analysing data, and drawing conclusions.
3. Relating your project to the research process will allow you to develop and answer your research
question in a logical and systematic manner.

UNIT III RESEARCHING AND DATA COLLECTION
Methods of data collection
While deciding about the method of data collection to be used for the study, the researcher should keep in mind
two types of data viz., primary and secondary.
The primary data are those which are collected afresh and for the first time, and thus happen to be original in
character.
The secondary data, on the other hand, are those which have already been collected by someone else and which
have already been passed through the statistical process.
The researcher would have to decide which sort of data he would be using (thus collecting) for his study and
accordingly he will have to select one or the other method of data collection.
What is data collection?
The process by which the researcher collects the information needed to answer the research problem.
In collecting the data, the researcher must decide:
➔ Which data to collect
➔ How to collect the data
➔ Who will collect the data
➔ When to collect the data
The selection of data collection method should be based on the following:
➔ The identified hypothesis or research problem
➔ The research design
➔ The information gathered about the variables
Types of Research Instruments
1. Questionnaire
2. Checklist
3. Distribution
4. Interview
5. Observation
6. Records
7. Experimental Approach
8. Survey Approach

1.Questionnaire
A series of questions designed to elicit information, which is filled in by all participants in the sample.
This can be gathered either by oral interview or by written questionnaire.
This is the most common type of research instrument.
Advantages of a Questionnaire
1. Relatively simple method of obtaining data.
2. Less time is consumed.
3. Researcher is able to gather data from a widely scattered sample.
Disadvantages of a Questionnaire
1. Responses to a questionnaire lack depth.
2. Respondent may omit or disregard any item he chooses.
3. Some items may force the subject to select responses that are not his actual choice.
4. Length of the questionnaire is limited according to the respondent’s interest.
5. Printing may be costly especially if it is lengthy.
6. Data are limited to the information that is voluntarily supplied by the respondents.
7. Some items may be misunderstood.
8. The sample is limited to those who are literate.
Techniques for Developing Questionnaire
1. Researcher may read literatures about the topic look through available questionnaires or obtain help
from experts.
2. Open - ended questions are preferable than closed questions since they reflect respondent’s attitudes,
feelings, which are expressed in his own words.
3. If yes - no questions are used; additional information may be gained by leaving space for respondent’s
own idea.
4. The possibility of a middle ground statement is also important.
5. Every item in a questionnaire should relate to the topic under study.
Criteria of a Good Questionnaire
1. Clarity of Language
It must meet the level of understanding of the respondents in order to generate needed responses.
2. Singleness of Objective
An item must have one and only one answer
3. One-to-One Correspondence
The questionnaire as a whole must correspond with the objectives of the study
4. Correct Grammar, Spelling, and Construction
The questionnaire must be constructed observing grammatically correct sentences, correctly spelled words,
coherence in construction of sentences, etc.
Characteristic of a Good Questionnaire
1. Well-stated title
2. Has statement of purpose
3. It assures the respondents about the confidentiality of responses
4. It is designed to achieve the objectives of the study
5. It has a clear direction
6. There are no double-negative questions
7. It avoids double barreled questions
8. The design corresponds to an easy tabulation of data

Degree of Structure Questions
1. Open-ended questions
This gives the respondents the ability to respond in their own words.
2. Close-ended or fixed alternative
This allows the subject to choose one of the given alternatives.
Specific Types of Closed-ended Question:
1. Dichotomous questions
This requires the respondent to make a choice between two responses such as yes/no, male/female, or
married/unmarried.
Example: Have you been ligated? ___ Yes ___ No
2. Multiple questions
This offers more than one choice.
Example: How favorable is it to you to become pregnant at this time? ___ Very favorable ___ Favorable ___
Not sure ___ Unfavorable ___ Very unfavorable
Cafeteria questions
A special type of multiple-choice question.
The respondents are asked to select a response according to their own point of view.
Example: People have different views on “family planning”, which of the following best represent your views?
___1. Family planning is necessary to quality life.
___2. Family planning is immoral and should be totally banned.
___3. Family planning has undesirable side effects that suggest need for caution.
___4. Family planning has beneficial effects that merit its practice.
___5. Family planning is moral and should be practiced.
Rank-Order questions
The respondents are asked to choose a response from the “most” to the “least”.
Example: Why must family planning be practiced?
Rank your answers from the 1-most reasonable to 5-least reasonable?
___Limits maternal disabilities.
___Gives parents more time to meet family needs.
___Helps maintain financial viability of the family.
___Affords more working hours for couples.
___Ensures family capability to educate all the children in the future.
Rating questions
The respondents are asked to judge something along an ordered dimension.
This is typically bipolar in nature, with the end points specifying the opposite extremes of a continuum.
Example: On the scale of 1 to 5 where 1 means strongly disagree and 5 means strongly agree, the Health Center
in Barangay A provides you the necessary services.
Scale
___ 5 - Strongly agree
___ 4 - Agree
___ 3 - Uncertain
___ 2 - Disagree
___ 1 - Strongly disagree
2.Checklist
Checklist These are items that comprise several questions on a topic and require the same response format.
Example: Here are some characteristics of birth-control devices that are of varying importance to different
people.

How important are the following in choosing a birth-control method?
3.Interview
This involves either structured or unstructured verbal communication between the researcher and subject, during
which information is obtained for a study.
Types of Interview
1. Unstructured Interviews
● more conversational
● long sometimes (hours) and
● conducted in a usual situation.
● This allows the researcher flexibility in questioning the subject.
2. Structured Interviews
● Always operates within formal written instrument referred as interview schedule.
● Researcher designed the questions to be asked prior to interview including the order of the questions.
● The questions are asked orally in either face to face or telephone format.
Advantages of Interview
1. Data from interview are usable
2. Depth of response can be assured
3. In an exploratory study, the interview technique provides basis for the formulation of questionnaire
4. Clarification is possible
5. No items are overlooked
6. Higher proportion of responses is obtained
7. Greater amount of flexibility is allowed
Disadvantages of Interview
1. Time element
2. Biases may result
3. Costly
4. Observation
Observation most commonly used in qualitative research.
Types of Observation
1. Unstructured observation a method of collecting research data that has both opponents and proponents.
2. Structured observation preparation of record-keeping forms such as category systems, checklists and rating
scales.
researcher typically has some prior knowledge about the behavior or event of interest
Advantages of Observation
1. Produces large quantities of data w/ relative case.
2. All data obtained from observation are usable.
3. Relatively inexpensive.
4. All subjects are potential respondents.
5. Subjects are usually available.
6. The observation technique can be stopped or begun at any time.
7. Observation may be recorded at the time they occur eliminating bias because of recall.

Disadvantages of Observation
1. Accurate prediction of a situation or event to be observed is unlikely.
2. Interviewing selected subjects may provide more information, economically, than waiting for the
spontaneous occurrence of the situation.
3. The presence of an observer gives the subjects a quality normally absent.
4. Observed events are subject to biases.
5. Extensive training is needed.
5. Records
A record refers to all the numbers and statistics that institutions, organizations and people keep as a record of
their activities.
Sources
1. Census data
2. Educational records
3. Hospital/clinic records
Advantages of Records
1. Records are unbiased
2. Records often cover a long period of time3. Inexpensive
Disadvantages of Records
1. All the researcher can have is what is there. If the record is incomplete, there is no way it can be completed.
2. No one can be sure of the conditions under which the records were collected.
3. There is no assurance of the accuracy of the records.
6. Experimental Approach
A powerful design for testing hypothesis of causal relationships among variables.
Researcher controls the independent variable & watches the effect on the dependent variable.
Two Groups of Experimental Approach
1. Treatment / Experimental group
2. Control group
Advantages of Experimental Approach
1. It is difficult to minimize all the variables in which the control and experimental groups might differ.
2. Causal relationships are difficult if not impossible to establish.
3. The time element may confound the results of experimental research.
4. In an experimental laboratory setting it may be difficult to obtain subjects, especially subjects who are
unaware of the experiment
7. Survey Approach
Non-experimental type in which the researcher investigates a community or a group of people.
Another name is FORMULATIVE OR EXPLORATORY research.
Advantages of Survey Approach
1. Can provide information about the possibilities of undertaking different types of research methods.
2. Provides data about the present.
3. Has a high degree of representativeness.
4. Easy to get respondents and information often do not express their true reactions to the questions.
Disadvantages of Survey Approach

1. Yields a low degree of control over extraneous variables.
2. Verbal behavior is quite unreliable and that people
➔ Problems encountered in collecting data from secondary sources.
Collecting data using secondary sources
Both qualitative and quantitative research studies use secondary sources as a method of data collection.
In qualitative research you usually extract descriptive (historical and current) and narrative information and in
quantitative research the information extracted is categorical or numerical.
The following section provides some of the many secondary sources grouped into categories:
Government or semi-government publications – There are many government and semi-government
organisations that collect data on a regular basis in a variety of areas and publish it for use by members of the
public and interest groups.
Some common examples are the census, vital statistics registration, labour force surveys, health reports,
economic forecasts and demographic information.
Earlier research – For some topics, an enormous number of research studies that have already been done by
others can provide you with the required information.
Personal records– Some people write historical and personal records (e.g. diaries) that may provide the
information you need.
Mass media– Reports published in newspapers, in magazines, on the Internet, and so on, may be another good
source of data.
Problems with using data from secondary sources
When using data from secondary sources you need to be careful as there may be certain problems with
the availability, format and quality of data. The extent of these problems varies from source to source.
While using such data some issues you should keep in mind are:
Validity and reliability
– The validity of information may vary markedly from source to source.
For example, information obtained from a census is likely to be more valid and reliable than that obtained from
most personal diaries.
Personal bias
– The use of information from personal diaries, newspapers and magazines may have the problem of personal
bias as these writers are likely to exhibit less rigorousness and objectivity than one would expect in research
reports.
Availability of data
– It is common for beginning researchers to assume that the required data will be available, but you cannot and
should not make this assumption.
Therefore, it is important to make sure that the required data is available before you proceed further with your
study.
Format
– Before deciding to use data from secondary sources it is equally important to ascertain that the data is
available in the required format.
For example, you might need to analyse age in the categories 23–33, 34–48, and so on, but, in your source, age
may be categorised as 21–24, 25–29, and so on.

UNIT IV REPORT WRITING
➔ Research writing in general
➔ Developing the outline
Having developed a chapter outline, the next step is to start writing. Though the way researchers organise their
writing is extremely individualised, the following guidelines and format may prove helpful for beginners.
When writing about the information obtained in response to a question (variable), write as if you were
providing answers to the following questions:
1. Why did you think it important to study the variable? What effects, in your opinion, may this variable
have on the main variable you are explaining? ( This is where you provide your own rationale for
studying the variable.)
2. In the case of a cross-tabulation, what relationships have other studies found between the variables you
are analysing? (This is where the literature review is integrated into the findings of the study.)
3. What did you expect to find out in terms of the relationship between the two variables? (If you have
formulated a hypothesis, state it here.)
4. What has your study found out? (Provide the hard data from your study here, as tables, graphs or text.)
5. What does the data show? (Interpret the findings of your analysis.)
6. What conclusions can you draw? How do the conclusions drawn from your study compare with those
from similar studies in the past? Does your study support or contradict them?
7. What explanation can you provide for the findings of your study?
In the suggested format in writing about information obtained from questions, notice that the literature review is
integrated with the findings and conclusions. The extent of the integration of the literature with findings mostly
depends upon the level at which you are writing your dissertation (Honours, Masters or PhD) – the higher the
level, the more extensive the literature review, the greater its integration with your findings, and the more
careful and confident you need to be about your conclusions.
Writing in qualitative research is more descriptive and narrative than analytical, hence you need to use your
imagination in terms of placement of information, linkage between the thoughts and flow of language to make
the writing interesting to read and meaningful in conveying the findings.
➔ presentation.
➔ Components: referencing
The report should follow an academic style of referencing.
there are four referencing systems from which to choose:
1.the short-title system;
2.the author–date system;
3.the reference by number system;
4.the author–number system.
You need to adopt the one that is acceptable to your university and academic discipline: ‘The first of
these is used in most general books, the second mainly in science and social science books; the third and
fourth less frequently’.
➔ writing the bibliography
Again, there are several well-established systems for writing a bibliography and your choice is dependent upon
the preference of the discipline and university.
In the social sciences some of the most commonly used ones are:

1. the Harvard system;
2. the American Psychological Association system;
3. the American Medical Association system;
4. the McGraw-Hill system;
5. the Modern Languages Association system;
6. the footnote system.
UNIT V CASE STUDIES
➔ Case studies in the relevant discipline illustrating how good research can be used from
project inception to completion
➔ review of research publications.

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