Scientific Investigation and Laboratory Equipment

Written By
Ng Chee Kin
B.Sc.(Hons.), MBA
ngcheekin@gmail.com
mrcheekin@blogspot.com.au

All Rights Reserved ©2012 Ng Chee Kin

PREsSS
E X p r e��

u
.a
CHAPTER 1

om
Introduction to Science

1.1 What is Science?

t.c
1 Science is a systematic study of nature and its Measuring cylinder Evaporating dish
effects on us and the environment. Beaker Filter funnel
2 Natural phenomena are events that happen

po
naturally around us.
3 Science can be divided into many fields such
as: Biology, physics, chemistry, geology,
astronomy and meteorology.

gs
4 Science-based careers are occupations that are
Water trough Tripod stand
based on science, for example: Life science –
doctor, nurse, dietician, botanist, zookeeper;

lo
earth science – environmental scientist, Bell jar Gas jar
meteorologist, geologist, mineralogist,
volcanologist; and physical science – physicist,
chemist, engineer, architect, and radiologist. .b Test tube rack
in
1.2 A Science Laboratory
1 It is a room or a building where scientific
ek

investigations are carried out.
2 We must obey safety rules and precautions
when working in a science laboratory. Flat-bottomed flask Conical flask
3 Common laboratory apparatus:
he

Test tube holder Crucible tongs
rc
m

Test-tube Boiling tube Flat-bottomed flask Round-bottomed flask Dropper Eureka can

ExpressNotes SC (F1)1st 3 4/16/09 10:49:42 AM

4 Hazard warning symbols: 1.3 The Steps in a Scientific Investigation
external),
(1) Identifying the problem micrometer,

u
Highly flammable vernier
(2) Forming a hypothesis
calipers

.a
Examples: (3) Planning the experiment
Ethanol, petrol (4) Controlling variables Length of String

om
curves and ruler,
(5) Collecting data opisometer
(6) Analysing and interpreting data
Explosive Area of Mathematical 1 cm2
(7) Drawing a conclusion
regular formulae, = 100 mm2

t.c
Examples: (8) Writing a report shapes graph paper
Sodium, potassium 1 m2
Area of Estimation = 10 000 cm2
1.4 Physical Quantities and Their Units

po
1 Physical quantities and their s1 units: irregular using graph 1 km2
Corrosive shapes paper = 1 000 000 m2
Examples: Physical Unit
SI units Volume of Measuring 1 ml = 1 cm3
Concentrated quantities symbols

gs
hydrochloric acid, liquids cylinder, 1 l = 1 000 cm3
length metre m
sodium hydroxide pipette, 1 m3 = 1 000 000 cm3
mass kilogram kg burette

lo
time second s
Poisonous/toxic Volume of Mathematical
temperature kelvin K regular- formulae,
Examples:
Lead, mercury
.b
electric current ampere A shaped solids water
displacement
method
in
1.5 Weight and Mass
(Eureka can
1 The weight of an object is the pull of the
or measuring
ek

Irritant Earth’s gravity on the object.
cylinder filled
2 The mass of an object is the quantity of matter 1 m3
with water)
Examples: in the object. = 1 000 000 cm3
Chlorine, chloroform Volume of Water
he

1.6 Measuring Tools irregular- displacement
Units shaped solids method
Physical (using
Highly flammable Tools/method and their
rc

quantity Eureka can
relationship
or measuring
Examples: Length of Metre rule, 1 cm = 10 mm cylinder filled
m

Ethanol, petrol straight lines ruler, calipers 1 m = 100 cm with water)
(internal & 1 km = 1000 m


1.7 The Importance of Standard Units Chloroplast Carries out (e)
1 Standard unit improves international photosynthesis

u
communications. Vacuoles Stores water and
2 They also ensure the physical quantities are

.a
dissolved materials
measured accurately and consistently. Euglena nucleus

4 A microscope is used to study the general

om
CHAPTER 2 structure of a cell.
(f)
bud
Cell As a Unit of Life 2.2 Unicellular and Multicellular Organisms

1 A unicellular organism has one cell only.

t.c
2.1 What is a Cell?
Yeast
1 A cell is the basic unit of life. (a) nucleus
2 Its function is to carry out life processes.

po
2 A multicellular organism has many cells.
Cell
(a) (b)
Pleurococcus

gs
Protoplasm Cell membrane
Chondrus Hydra
(b) nucleus
Nucleus Cytoplasm

lo
(c)
Spirogyra
Animal cells Plant cells
Irregular in shape
No cell wall
Regular in shape
Have cell wall
.b Amoeba
pseudopodium
2.3 Cell Organisation in the Human Body
in
1 Organisation of cell:
No chloroplasts Have chloroplasts (c)
Cell (simple)
ek

Mostly no vacuoles Have large vacuoles
↓
3 The functions of cell structures:
Chlamydomonas Tissue
chloroplast
he

Structure Function ↓
Nucleus Controls all cell activities
Organ
Cytoplasm A place where chemical (d) ↓
rc

processes take place cilium
System
Cell membrane Controls ﬂow of materials
↓
m

in and out of cell
Paramecium
Cell wall Gives shape to the cell Organism (complex)


2 Examples of cell: (c) Nerve tissue 5 Examples of system:
(a) Nerve cell

u
Nose

.a
Trachea Bronchus Skin

om
(d) Epithelial tissue
(b) Red blood cell
Liver

Lungs Kidney

t.c
Urinary
4 Examples of system: bladder
(c) Epithelial cell

po
(a) (b) Respiratory system Excretory system
Oviduct or
Pituitary Fallopian tube

gs
gland

Thyroid Ovary
(d) Bone cell Lungs Stomach gland Uterus

lo
Vagina

Female
.b
(c) (d)
Adrenal
gland
Sex
glands
Sperm
duct
in
Ovary
3 Examples of tissue: Testis
(female) Urethra
(a) Connective tissue Testis
(male) penis
ek

Endocrine system Male
Eye Kidney

2.4 The Human Being – A Complex Organism
he

1 A human being is a complex multicellular
(e) (f) organism because the cells are organized into
(b) Mucsle tissue tissues, organs and systems.
rc

2 Cell specialisation helps to divide body
functions among the different types of cells.
3 Cell specialisation and cell organisation
m

ensure the life processes are carried out
Tongue Brain effectively.


CHAPTER 3 Examples Soil, wood, Water, Air Liquid Mercury To make thermometer,
most metals mercury hydrometer
Matter

u
(a type of Water To make drinks, cooking,
metal)

.a
3.1 What is Matter?
washing and cleaning

1 Matter is everything that has mass and Gas Air To fill buoy, rise hot
3.3 The Concept of Density
air balloons, make a

om
occupies space.
1 Density is defined as mass per unit volume of submarine sink or float
2 Examples of matter are wood, air, water, soil
a substance.
and living things.
Mass CHAPTER 4
Density = ————
3.2 The States of Matter Volume

t.c
The Variety of Resources on Earth
1 Matter exists in three states: solid, liquid and
2 The unit of density is gram per cubic
gas.
centimeter (g/cm3). 4.1 The Various Resources on Earth
2 Matter changes its state when it is heated or

po
3 The buoyancy of a substance is affected by its 1 The basic resources needed for life on Earth
cooled.
density. are:
3 The kinetic theory of matter states that matter
4 Buoyancy (or flotation) refers to the ability
consists of tiny and discrete particles. Basic Useful
of a substance to float or sink in another Importance

gs
4 Characteristics of state matter: resource substances
substance.
Characteristic Solid Liquid Gas 5 A lower density substance will float on a Air Needed for Oxygen,
higher density liquid. respiration and nitrogen,
Arrangement Closely Further apart Very far

lo
6 On the other hand, a higher density substance combustion carbon
of particles packed apart dioxide
will sink in a lower density liquid.
Carbon dioxide

Spaces Very small Large Very large
.b cork (0.24 g/cm3)

water (1.00 g/cm3)
is needed for
photosynthesis
in
zinc (7.10 g/cm3)
between Water Needed to support Fresh water
particles the functions of the
ek

body systems
Movement of No free Move freely, Move 3.4 The Properties of Matter and Their Application
particles movement, collide with freely, very in Everyday Life Soil Contains air, water, Humus
vibrate one another rapidly and minerals and organic
Matter Example Applications
he

about a fixed randomly substances which are
position Solid Iron, steel To construct buildings, needed to support
bridges and vehicles, living things
Density High Medium Low
make cooking utensils Minerals Minerals such as Metals
rc

Shape Definite No definite No definite metals are used
Wood To build bridges ad
shape shape shape to make useful
houses, making furniture
m

Volume Definite Definite No definite products and
Plastic To make toys, components
volume volume volume construct buildings
in vehicles


Fossil Used to produce Coal, Examples Iron, Naphthalene, Soil, air, Brittleness and Ductile (can Brittle (can
fuels energy in power petroleum, hydrogen, sugar, rubber, dessert hardness be pulled break easily)

u
plants, factories, natural gases oxygen, table salt, into strands) and soft
vehicles, machines helium, water and hard

.a
and to make plastics carbon, Malleability Malleable Non-
Living They are sources Meat, skin, mercury (ability to be malleable

om
things of food, building carcasses, shaped)
materials, clothes silk, milk Comparing metals and non-metals
Conductivity of Good Poor
and fuel heat conductor of conductor of
Physical
Metals Non-metals heat heat
properties

t.c
4.2 Elements, Compounds and Mixtures Surface Shiny Dull Conductivity of Good Poor
Comparing elements, compounds and mixtures appearance electricity conductor of conductor of
electricity electricity

po
Aspect Element Compound Mixture Brittleness Ductile (can Brittle (can
Melting point High Low
Appearance and hardness be pulled into break easily)
strands) and and soft Boiling point High Low
hard Density High Low

gs
Malleability Malleable Non- Comparing the Properties of Compounds and
Deﬁnition It is the It is made It is made (ability to be malleable Mixtures
simples up of two up of two shaped)

lo
substance or more or more Aspect Compounds Mixtures
Conductivity Good Poor
substances substances of heat conductor of conductor of (a) Method of By chemical By physical
which are
chemically
combined
which
are not
chemically
.b
Conductivity
heat
Good
heat
Poor
separation
(b) Formation
reactions.
A new
means.
No new
in
of a new substance is substance is
combined of electricity conductor of conductor of
substance formed formed
electricity electricity
Composition Only Can consist
(c) Conversion of Heat is No heat is
ek

consists of of one or Melting point High Low energy released or released or
one type more than
Boiling point High Low absorbed absorbed
of particle one type of
when a when a
he

particle Density High Low compound is mixture is
Separation Cannot be Can be Can be formed formed
method separated separated separated Physical methods to separate components of a mixture
(d) Characteristic The The
by any by chemical by
rc

Physical of the original characteristics characteristics
processes means only, physical Metals Non-metals
properties components of the original of the original
such as means,
components components
m

electrolysis such as Surface Shiny Dull are no longer are
ﬁltration appearance maintained maintained


(e) Identification The original The original 1 Air consists of about 20% of oxygen. 5.2 The Properties of Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide
of the original components components Water fills up – of

u
components cannot be can be
gas jar, showing Carbon
that about 20% of Properties Oxygen
identified identified the volume of air dioxide

.a
easily easily consists of oxygen
Colour Colourless Colourless
(f) Ratio of Components Components
Odour (smell) Odourless Odourless

om
components are combined are formed
in a specific without a Solubility in Slightly Slightly
2 Air contains water vapour.
ratio fixed ratio water soluble soluble
Cork
Solubility Not soluble Very soluble
4.3 To Appreciate the Importance of Earth’s

t.c
Test tube in sodium (to form
Resources
Ice Liquid on the hydroxide sodium
1 Preservation of resources is the act of keeping outer wall of
carbonate)
the test tube
the resources in their original state. Water

po
2 Conservation of resources is the responsible Effect on lime No effect Lime water
use and management of natural resources to water turns cloudy
Beginning of End of
prevent loss, waste or damage. experiment experiment Supporting Supports Does not

gs
3 Preservation and conservation of Earth’s 3 Air contains microorganisms. combustion combustion. support
resources are important to: combustion.
(a) prevent extinction of animal and plant • A glowing • A glowing
species

lo
splinter splinter
(b) prevent depletion of natural resources relights relights
such as fossil fuels and minerals • A burning • A burning
(c) prevent the pollution of air and water
(d) ensure the basic needs of humans are not
threatened
.b splinter
burns more
brightly
splinter
burns more
brightly
in
(e) ensure the natural resources will be
available for future generations 4 Air contains dust particles.
pH Neutral Acidic
ek

CHAPTER 5 • Has no • Turns
Sticky surface effect on moist blue
The Air Aroun Us facing up
Dust particles moist blue litmus
he

and red paper to
5.1 The Composition of Air litmus red
papers • Turns red
• Has no hydrogen
rc

Nitrogen (78%) Oxygen (21%)
Dust effect on carbonate
Inert gases + water particles
vapour + dust + Carbon dioxide Glass slide Glass slide hydrogen indicator to
m

microorganisms (0.97%) (0.03%) carbonate yellow
indicator
Experiments to show the properties of air


5.3 Oxygen is Needed for Respiration • Bronchitis, pneumonia (caused by Energy Characteristics Examples
sulphur dioxide)
1 Oxygen is needed for respiration to produce Potential Energy stored • A stretched

u
• Death (caused by carbon monoxide)
energy. (stored energy) in an object due sling-shot
4 The effects of air pollution on the
2 The composition of inhaled and exhaled air:

.a
environment: to its position or • A rock on a
Composition (%) • Acid rain (caused by sulphur dioxide) condition. cliff
Gas • Thinning of the ozone layer (caused by • A

om
Inhaled air Exhaled air compressed
CFC)
Nitrogen 78 78 • Greenhouse effect (caused by carbon spring
Oxygen 21 16 dioxide) • A wound up
• Haze (caused by dust particles, soot) alarm clock
Carbon

t.c
0.03 4
dioxide
5.6 The Importance of Keeping the Air Clean Kinetic • Energy that • A moving
Inert gases 0.97 0.97 (working is found bus
1 We can keep the air clean by practising the
Water energy) in moving • A swinging

po
Less More following:
vapour objects. pendulum
• Using less CFC based products, such as • A rotating
aerosols. ceiling fan

gs
5.4 Oxygen is Needed for Combustion • Recycling and reducing wastes • A ﬂying
1 Combustion is a process that requires oxygen, • Using unleaded petrol aeroplane
heat and fuel. • Using public transport or sharing vehicles Heat • Energy that • A burning
2 Combustion of carbon (such as charcoal):

lo
(car pooling) (working is released candle
Carbon + Oxygen → Carbon dioxide • Installing catalytic converters to motor energy) by hot • A boiling
vehicles objects. water
3 Combustion
kerosene):
of hydrocarbon (such as .b
2 Cigarette smoke contains tar, nicotine and
carbon monoxide which are harmful to
• The hot Sun
• A hot iron
in
Hydrocarbon + Oxygen → humans. Light • Energy that • A shining
Carbon dioxide + Water (working is produced star
energy) by glowing • A glowing
ek

objects. light bulb
5.5 Air Pollution CHAPTER 6 • A burning
1 Air pollution is caused by the pollutants in Sources of Energy campﬁre
he

the air. • A switched
2 Air pollutants are harmful substances that 6.1 The Various Forms and Sources of Energy on torch
are added to the air. Sound • Energy that • A beating
1 Energy is an ability to do work.
rc

3 The effects of air pollution on human beings: (working is produced drum
• Lung cancers (caused by asbestos, 2 The SI unit for energy is joule (J). energy) by vibrating • A person
sulphur dioxide) 3 Forms of energy: Potential, electrical, kinetic, objects. singing
m

• Brain damage in children (caused by lead chemical, heat, nuclear, light, mechanical, • A blowing
particles, carbon monoxide) sound whistle


4 Sources of energy: Geothermal • Geysers • To produce
• A ringing
telephone • Hot geothermal
Sources of

u
Examples Uses springs energy that
energy
Electrical • Energy that • An electric • Volcanoes can be used

.a
(working is produced iron Fossil fuels • Coal • To generate to generate
energy) by ﬂowing • An electric • Petroleum electricity in electricity
• Natural power plants

om
electrical heater
current gas • As the main 5 Energy changes from one form to another. For
(electricity). fuel for vehicles example:
and machines
Situation Energy change
Chemical • Energy that • Food

t.c
Wind • Moving • To move a
(stored energy) is stored in • Fossil fuels A marble rolls Potential energy →
air sailboat
a substance (such as down a slope Kinetic energy
• To turn a
that can be natural gas, Winding up spring Kinetic energy →
windmill for

po
burnt. coal and of a toy car Potential energy
pumping water
petrol)
and grind corn Burning a candle Chemical energy →
• Wood
• To generate Heat + Light energy

gs
electricity in
Nuclear • Energy that • Explosion Beating a drum Kinetic energy →
wind farms
(stored energy) is produced of an atomic Sound energy
by atoms bomb Water • Rain fall • To generate Switching on a fan Electrical energy →

lo
that are • The (hydro) hydroelectricity kinetic energy
broken explosion
down on the Sun’s Sun • The Sun • To generate An exploding Nuclear energy →
(through
nuclear
ﬁssion) or
surface .b
(solar) electricity (solar
cells and solar
panels collect
atomic bomb Heat + Light +
Sound energy
in
solar energy 6 The Sun is the primary source of energy.
combined
(through and convert
6.2 Renewable and Non-Renewable Energy
ek

nuclear it electrical
Sources
fusion). energy)
• To enable 1 Comparing renewable and non-renewable
Mechanical • Energy that • A car is photosynthesis energy sources:
he

(combination is posessed driven up a in green plants.
Renewable Energy Non-renewable Energy
of working by an object hill Radioactive • Uranium • To produce (energy sources that (energy sources that will
and stored that has • A pendulum substances • Plutonium nuclear energy. can be reused and be used up one day and
rc

energy) both kinetic swings back • To produce will never run out) cannot be replaced)
energy and and forth electrical energy • Solar energy • Fossil fuels (such
potential in submarines
m

(from the Sun) as natural gas,
energy. and warships petroleum and coal)


• Hydroelectricity • Nuclear energy Aspect Heat Temperature Affected by • Volume- • Amount of
(from flowing (from plutonium) Definition A form of Degree of the bigger heat- the

u
water) on energy hotness of an the more the heat
• Biomass energy object volume, energy is

.a
(from plants) the more supplied, the
• Wind energy SI Unit joule (J) kelvin (K). the heat higher the
Normally we

om
(from wind) temperature
• Geothermal use degrees
Celsius (°C) Difference
energy (from the
Earth) How it is • Kinetic • Supplying
produced energy heat energy

t.c
P Q P Q
2 Conservation and efficient use of energy: (such as to an object
(a) Use energy efficient equipment, such as rubbing (causing 100°C 100°C
fluorescent lights hands) temperature

po
(b) Use public transport, such as buses and • Chemical to increase) P contains P and Q have
light-rail transit (LRT) energy • Removing more heat the same
(c) Practice car-pooling to work (such as heat from than Q temperature
burning an object

gs
6.3 The Importance of Conserving Energy Sources fossil fuels) (causing
7.2 The Effects of Heat Flow on Matter
• Electrical temperature
1 Conserving non-renewable resources 1 Heat changes the volume of matter.
energy to decrease)
will make them last longer for the future 2 When heated, the volume of matter increases.

lo
(such as
generations. Hence, matter expands.
lighting a
light bulb) 3 When cooled, the volume of matter decreases.
CHAPTER 7
Heat
.b • Nuclear
energy 4
Hence, matter contracts.
Heat flows from a hot region to a cold region
in three ways:
in
(such as
nuclear (a) conduction, occurs in solids
7.1 Heat as a Form of Energy (b) convection, occurs in fluids (such as
fission in
ek

1 Heat is a form of energy the Sun) liquids and gases)
2 Heat can be produced from: (c) radiation, does not require a medium
Effect • Causes • Causes
(a) kinetic energy, such as rubbing two
matter to matter to
he

objects together 7.3 Effects of Heat on Matter
expand or become hot
(b) chemical energy, such as burning fossil
contract or cold Change of state
fuels Process Heat flow
• Causs • Causes of matter
(c) electrical energy, such as lighting an
matter to heat to flow
rc

electric bulb Melting Solid → Liquid Heat is
change from a hot
(d) nuclear energy, such as nuclear fission in absorbed
from one region to a
the Sun
m

state to cold region Freezing Liquid → Solid Heat is
3 Comparing heat and temperature: released
another


Boiling Liquid → Gas Heat is (a) Mercury or alcohol in thermometers 7.6 The Benefits of Heat Flow
absorbed (b) Bimetallic strip in thermostats 1 Application of heat flow via conduction:

u
(c) Bimetallic strip in fire alarms (a) Heat is used for cooking food with
Condensation Gas → liquid Heat is (d) Gaps in railway tracks and bridges cooking utencil

.a
released (e) Telephone wires (b) Heat is used to melt metal for making
Evaporation Liquid → Gas Heat is (f) Metal pipes carrying hot water and oil jewellery and equipment
absorbed

om
2. Applications of heat flow via convection:
Sublimation Solid → Gas 7.5 Absorbing and Giving Out Heat (a) Convection currents improve the air
Gas → Solid Heat is 1 Objects that absorb heat are called heat circulation and keeps the buildings cool
absorbed absorber. (b) Convection currents cool the Earth’s
Heat is 2 Objects that give out heat are called heat surface through sea breeze and land

t.c
released radiator. breeze.
3 Dark, dull objects are good heat absorber and 3 Applications of heat flow via radiation:
good heat radiator. (a) Heat flow by radiation is used to dry

po
7.4 Application of Contraction and Expansion of 4 White, shiny surfaces are poor heat absorber laundry
Matter and poor heat radiator. (b) The heat from the Sun keeps the Earth
1 Application of expansion and contraction of and our body warm
matter:

gs
lo
.b
in
ek
he
rc
m


Scientific Investigation and Laboratory Equipment

Recommended

Recommended

More Related Content

What's hot

What's hot (20)

Similar to Scientific Investigation and Laboratory Equipment

Similar to Scientific Investigation and Laboratory Equipment (20)

Recently uploaded

Recently uploaded (20)

Scientific Investigation and Laboratory Equipment