Introduction to history, theory, practice, evaluation of educational technology

1. Mike Sharples
Institute of Educational Technology
The Open University
www.mikesharples.org
A Short Introduction to
Educational Technology
@sharplm

2. Definitions
Pedagogy
“The theory and practice of teaching, learning and assessment”
Sharples, M., McAndrew, P., Weller, M., Ferguson, R., FitzGerald, E., Hirst, T., Mor, Y., Gaved, M. and Whitelock, D. (2012).
Innovating Pedagogy 2012: Open University Innovation Report 1. Milton Keynes: The Open University.
Educational technology
Interactive technology to enable effective learning (may include fixed, desktop, mobile and
wearable devices and their software - and combinations of these)
Technology Enhanced Learning
Learning supported by individual or multiple technologies. In Europe, now used in
preference to e-learning, or computer-assisted learning

3. 1920s: Pressey’s self-testing machine
Image copyright OSU photo archives
“There must be an ‘industrial revolution’ in education,
in which educational science and the ingenuity of
educational technology combine to modernize the
grossly inefficient and clumsy procedures of
conventional education. Work in the schools of the
future will be marvelously though simply organized,
so as to adjust almost automatically to individual
differences and the characteristics of the learning
process. There will be many laborsaving schemes
and devices, and even machines – not at all for the
mechanizing of education, but for the freeing of
teacher and pupil from educational drudgery and
incompetence.”
Sidney Pressey (1933) Psychology and the New Education
Personalized learning

4. 1950s: Linear programming and teaching
machines
Based on scientific theory of ‘operant conditioning’
(changing behaviour by use of reinforcement after a
desired response)
Students presented with a linear sequence of frames
of information, in small steps
Immediate reinforcement of positive student
responses, but the same response for each student
Gradual progression to establish complex repertoires
Issues: finding reinforcers that are effective and
ethical; matching individual students; incorrect
responses
Image from B.F. Skinner (1958)
Teaching Machines
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jTH3ob1IRFo

5. Emerging themes
Educational technology
Personalized self-paced learning
Interactive learning
Learning design
Formative assessment
Motivation for learning

6. 1950s: Branching programs
Based on theories from cybernetics (adaptive
systems, feedback control)
Use information from errors to eliminate incorrect
responses (vs. ensuring correct responses and
reinforcing them)
Student is presented with multiple choice response
Feedback depends on the student’s response
Move towards adaptive and personalized teaching
Adaptive teaching machine

7. Multiple choice branching
Multiple choice on FutureLearn

8. 1960s: Computer-assisted instruction
Computer-administered teaching
Adaptive teaching systems
Programming languages for education (BASIC:
Beginner’s All Purpose Symbolic Instruction
Code)
“Computers and computer-managed instruction
systems can be expected to play a major role in
transforming the educational process by giving
the teacher a sophisticated aid to allow for
flexible, multimedia, individualized education at
a relatively small increase in cost.”
H.J. Bruder, Computer-Managed Instruction, Science, 1968
Multi-media adaptive teaching system,
with ‘light-pen’ touch screen, 1968

9. Instructivist pedagogy
Learning as knowledge
transfer
Instructor-led
Sequenced learning
elements
Inform – test – explain
Adaptivity &
personalization US patent in 1966 for ‘Audio-visual teaching system’

10. 1970s: Large-scale teaching systems
Large scale projects (PLATO,
TICCIT)
Networked teaching systems
Logo and microworlds
Computers as coaches
‘Hangman’ software on a Commodore PET computer

11. 1970s: PLATO IV
950 networked terminals in 140 sites
8000 hours of instructional material by 3000 authors
Aim to provide ubiquitous computer-based teaching
(proposal for 1-million terminal PLATO V)
High resolution flicker-free plasma display screen
(transparent so that colour slides can be overlaid on
it); touch panel; audio and slide; music synthesisers
TUTOR authoring language
First use of graphic simulations for teaching
Early social network, gaming community, cyberculture
PLATO IV touch-screen networked
learning terminal
https://archives.library.illinois.edu/erec/University
%20Archives/1505050/BrownBag/BBPlatoIV.htm

12. 1970s: PLATO IV
Evaluation: “no compelling statistical
evidence that PLATO had either a
positive or negative effect on student
achievement”; no significant effect on
student drop-out rates; PLATO
students showed much more
favourable attitude towards
computers.
In 1992 the company NovaNET was
formed with the rights to PLATO
technology. Changed name to
Edmentum in 2012.

13. 1970s: Logo programming for children
Seymour Papert - colleague of the psychologist Jean
Piaget
Learning through programming computers
Logo programming language and computer-
controlled robotic ‘turtle’ for children
Claims that programming, proceduralization and
debugging are valuable problem-solving skills
“In many schools today the phrase “computer aided instruction”
means making the computer teach the child. One might say the
computer is being used to program the child. In my vision the
child programs the computer” (Papert, Mindstorms)
Children using a ‘button box’
to control and programme a turtle
From Papert, S. A. (1980). Mindstorms: Children,
computers, and powerful ideas. Basic Books.

14. 1980s: Microcomputers in education
Multimedia personal computers
Videodisks
Networked-based teaching and computer-
supported collaborative learning
Educational simulations
Commercial teaching and training
packages
Children using educational software
on a BBC microcomputer

15. 1980s: Intelligent tutoring systems
Computer system that acts as an interactive
tutor
Explicit models of:
Expertise
Student knowledge and misconceptions
Pedagogy – how to teach
Aim is to teach to the same level of
effectiveness as a human tutor
WHY: Do you think the Amazon jungle has a heavy rainfall or a light rainfall?
Student: Heavy rainfall
WHY: Why does the Amazon have a heavy rainfall?
Student: Because it’s near the Atlantic
WHY: Yes, the Amazon jungle is near the equatorial Atlantic. How does that affect the rainfall in the Amazon jungle?
Student: The water in the current is warm
Joseph Psotka, Sharon A. Mutter (1988). Intelligent Tutoring Systems: Lessons Learned. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

16. 1990s: Online learning
Edutainment
Integration of video, animation,
hypermedia
Notebook computers
Web-based learning environments
(VLEs, MLEs)
Integrated learning systems
Intelligent agents
‘Smart Operator’ adaptive simulation-based training
package with ‘intelligent agent’ feedback on learner errors
WebCT virtual learning environment

17. 2000s: Personal and mobile learning
Web-based virtual learning
environments in universities and
colleges
Mobile and contextual learning
Seamless learning
Multimedia learning spaces
Spoken language interaction with
tutoring systems
Open educational systems
HandLeR mobile learning technology
developed at University of Birmingham,
UK, 2000
Sharples, M. (2000). The design of personal mobile technologies for
lifelong learning. Computers & Education, 34(3-4), 177-193.

18. 2010s: MOOCs
Designed to deliver learning at
massive scale
Short free online courses,
some with over 150,000
learners
Multimedia teaching,
immediate feedback
Learning design and learning
analytics

19. 2010s: Personalized learning
Learner profiles
Personal learning paths
Competency-based progression
Flexible learning environments
Career readiness
“Three personalized learning elements —
Student grouping,
Learning space supports personalized learning, and
Students discuss data
— had the greatest ability to isolate the success cases from the other schools. All of these
elements were being implemented in the most successful schools.”
RAND (2015). Continued Progress: Promising Evidence on Personalized Learning.
http://k12education.gatesfoundation.org/resource/continued-progress-promising-evidence-on-personalized-learning-2/

20. 2020s: Resilient education
Education that can withstand
shocks to the system
Adapts to external changes
Supports differing cultures and
contexts
Remote and virtual reality labs
Blended and social learning
Community engagement
Weller, Martin and Anderson, Terry (2013). Digital resilience in higher
education. European Journal of Open, Distance and e-Learning, 16(1) p. 53.

21. Old and new learning (1990s – 2020s)
E-learning in the 1990s Technology-enhanced learning in the 2020s
Constructivist learning Social-constructivist learning
Online learning Blended learning
VLEs and MLEs Personal Learning Environments
Media-equipped teaching rooms Flexible learning spaces
Desktop computer rooms Support for students with multiple personal
technologies
Creating re-usable learning objects Open learning and student-created media
Collaborative learning Social networked learning
Evaluation of learning gains Evaluation of learning transformations
Effective learning technology Effective, resilient, scalable, sustainable learning
technology

22. Education for a changing world
2000-07 2008-11 2012-13 2014-16 2017-20
Adapted from:
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Timeline_of_MOOC_and_open_education_
development_with_organisational_efforts_in_the_areas.png
Face-to-face teaching
Open and distance education
Open
Educational
Resources
Open
University &
distance
universities
OpenLearn
Birth of
MOOCs
Udacity
Coursera
EdX
FutureLearn
Khan
Academy
Flipped
classroom
Blended
learning
Online
program
management
Micro-
credentials
Nano-
degrees
Corporate
training
Blended
courses
& degrees
Hybrid open
& distance
courses
MOOCs
Learning analytics

23. A new science of learning
Computational learning
Infer structural models from the environment
Learn from probabilistic input
Social learning
Learning by imitation
Shared attention
Intersubjectivity
Neural learning
Learning supported by brain circuits that link perception and action
Developmental learning
Behavioural and cognitive development
Neural plasticity
Pedagogy
Principles of effective teaching
A.N. Meltzoff, P. K. Kuhl, J. Movellan, & T. J.
Sejnowski (2009) Foundations for a New Science
of Learning, Science 325 (5938), 284.

24. A new science of learning
“Insights from many different
fields are converging to create a
new science of learning that may
transform educational practice”
“A key component is the role of
‘the social’ in learning. What
makes social interaction such a
powerful catalyst for learning?”

25. Types of learning
Learning as… Learning sciences…
Changing behaviour Neuroscience
Behavioural science
Enhancing skills Cognitive development
Storing information Information sciences
Gaining knowledge Cognitive sciences
Epistemology
Making sense of the world Social sciences
Socio-cultural and activity theory
Interpreting the world in a new way Phenomenology
Personal change Psychoanalysis

26. Theories of learning with technology
John Dewey’s Instrumentalism
Knowing is activity in the world, involving a combination of thoughts and external artefacts as tools for inquiry
Every reflective experience is an instrument for production of meaning
Inquiry-led learning
Yrjö Engeström’s Expansive Activity Theory
Learning is a cultural-historical activity mediated by tools, including technology and language
Activity systems contain the possibility for expansive transformation, as contradictions are internalised and
resolved
Social-constructivist learning
Gordon Pask’s Conversation Theory
Conversation is the fundamental process of learning
Learning is a cybernetic process of “coming to know” through mutual adjustment and negotiation
Conversational learning

27. Dewey’s instrumental inquiry
Education should be based upon the quality of experience
For an experience to be educational, there must be continuity
and interaction
Continuity: experience comes from and leads to other
experiences
Interaction: when the experience meets the internal needs or
goals of a person
Pragmatic instrumentalism: Knowing is activity in the world,
involving a combination of thoughts and external artefacts as
tools for inquiry

28. Dewey and social learning
“The principle that development of experience comes about
through interaction means that education is essentially a social
process. This quality is realized in the degree in which individuals
form a community group. … It is absurd to exclude the teacher
from membership in the group. As the most mature member of
the group he has a peculiar responsibility for the conduct of the
interactions and inter-communications which are the very life of
the group as a community.”
Dewey, “Experience and Education” (1938)

29. Dewey and reflective learning
Learning comes when a person strives to overcome a problem or
breakdown in everyday activity, or recognises part of the continual flow of
activity and conversation as worth remembering
Every reflective experience is an instrument for the production of meaning
A mis-educative experience is one that stops or distorts growth for future
experiences
A non-educative experience is when a person has not done any reflection
and so has not obtained lasting mental growth

30. Learning as cultural historical activity
Learning is a cultural-historical activity mediated by tools, including technology and
language
Activity is the focus of analysis
Activity systems are multi-voiced, with many perspectives, transitions and interests
in continual interaction
Activity systems are shaped over time
Activity systems contain the possibility for expansive transformation: they go though
extended periods of qualitative change, as the contradictions are internalised and
resolved, leading to the emergence of new structure, tools and activity.
Engeström

31. A university as an activity system
Learning at university is an activity system shaped by the history of higher
education and mediated by tools, including technology and academic language
Teaching and learning activity is the focus of analysis
Teaching and learning activity systems are multi-voiced: many teaching methods,
learning strategies, cultures
Teaching and learning systems in universities are shaped over time
University systems contain the possibility for expansive transformation. For
example, students bringing their own devices into lectures initially caused
tensions and disruptions - but also possibilities for radical transformation to a
more student-centred learning activity.
Example

32. A theory of how we come to know,
derived from cybernetics
All human learning involves
conversation
We converse with ourselves to reflect on
experience
We converse with teachers to
understand their expert knowledge
We converse with other learners to try
and reach shared understanding
3
Pask and learning as a conversational system

33. Human adaptivity

34. Human adaptive learning
through reflective conversation
Reflect
Understand
Plan
Act
Experience
Check
Effect
Level of actions
Level of descriptions
How do we do that?
Why are we doing that?

35. Learner
• demonstrates understanding
• proposes solutions to problems
Learner
• acts to develop understanding
• acts to solve problems
Partner
• demonstrates understanding
• elaborates solutions to problems
Partner
• acts to develop understanding
• helps to solve problems
Level of descriptions
Level of actions
Shared medium
• enables learners and partners to represent
arguments and reach agreements
Shared medium
• enables learners and partners to access
information, develop models and solve problems
‘how? and ‘what’ questions and responses
‘why?’ questions and responses
offering conceptions and explanations
proposing goals and modifying actions
reflect
adapt
reflect
adapt
Conversational framework

36. Conversational learning: FutureLearn
Platform designed to support learning as
conversation
Each learning ‘step’ linked to guided
conversation
The more people who exchange ideas and
perspectives, the better the learning
experience
Peer review and small group discussions
Social network techniques to manage the
scale of conversation
www.futurelearn.com
www.futurelearn.com

37. A theory of learning for the mobile age

38. What is distinctive about learning in a mobile world?
Learners are continually on the move
Mobile devices enable new learning spaces
Need to understand learning as a mobile and
contextual activity
Involves a blend of portable, wearable and
fixed technologies
Embraces learning in both formal and
informal settings
Design learning within and across contexts
Sharples, M., Taylor, J., & Vavoula, G. (2016) A Theory of Learning for the Mobile Age. In C. Haythornthwaite, R. Andrews, J. Fransman & E.M.
Meyers (eds.) The SAGE handbook of e-learning research, 2nd edition. SAGE, pp. 63-81.

39. Predictions from learning theories
Set personal goals and work to achieve them
Explore a topic from multiple perspectives
Work together in a team to solve authentic problems
Share and discuss worked examples with peers and teacher
Interact with media and simulations
Get formative tests and receive rapid feedback on results
Work to achieve mastery of a topic
Reflect on their recent learning and how to improve it
Develop meta-cognitive strategies to assess and improve their learning
Use familiar personal technology to solve problems in context
Learning is likely to be more successful if students:

40. Learning design and analytics
“The potential is
emerging for a virtuous
circle, where inquiry into
the learning process
feeds into learning
design, which motivates
learning analytics, which
motivate future inquiry
and thus the refinement
of the design and
analytics.”
Learning
analytics
Analysis
of
learning
Learning
design
Learning
activity
Sharples, M., McAndrew, P., Weller, M., Ferguson,
R., FitzGerald, E., Hirst, T., and Gaved, M. (2013).
Innovating Pedagogy 2013: Open University
Innovation Report 2. Milton Keynes: The Open
University.

41. Evaluation of learning with technology
Micro level: Usability issues
technology usability
individual and group activities
Meso level: Educational Issues
learning experience – processes and outcomes
continuity of learning across settings
critical incidents: learning breakthroughs and breakdowns
Macro level: Organizational Issues
effect on the institutional practice
emergence of new practices
take-up and sustainability
Evaluate throughout its lifecycle: from initial designs to full deployment

42. Step 1 – what was supposed to happen
pre-interviews with stakeholders (teachers, students, parents, support staff),
curriculum, lesson plans, learning designs
Step 2 – what actually happened
pre and post tests
observations
learning analytics
focus groups
Step 3 – differences between 1 & 2
reflective interviews with stakeholders
critical incident analysis
Lifecycle evaluation
At each level:

43. Multiple media, methods, devices
Ethical design of learning
Independent verification
Secure environment
Support for learners
Informed consent
Open access to learning
aNalytics for learning

44. Where to look next
http://hotel-project.eu/sites/default/files/hotel/default/content-files/documentation/Learning-Theory.pdf

45. Innovating Pedagogy
annual reports from The Open University
www.open.ac.uk/innovatingMike Sharples (2019). Practical
Pedagogy: 40 New Ways to Teach
and Learn. Routledge.