2. Strain Theory (Social Class)
Symbolic Interactionism
Drift Theory
Routine Activity
Labeling Theory
Control Theory
CONTENTS
3. STRAIN THEORY
(SOCIAL CLASS)
In criminology, the Strain Theories state that social structures within
society may encourage citizens to commit crime. Following on the work of
Émile Durkheim, Strain Theories have been advanced by Merton (1938),
Cohen (1955), Cloward and Ohlin (1960), Agnew (1992), and Messner and
Rosenfeld (1994). Strain may be either:
a. Structural
b. Individual
4. this refers to the processes at the societal level, which
filter down and affect how the individual perceives his or her needs,
i.e., if particular social structures are inherently inadequate or there is
inadequate regulation, this may change the individual’s perceptions as
to means and opportunities;
A. STRUCTURAL
B. INDIVIDUAL
this refers to the frictions and pains experienced by an
individual as he or she looks for ways to satisfy his or her needs, i.e.
if the goals of a society become significant to an individual, actually
achieving them may become more important than the means adopted.
5. Robert Merton Strain Theory
An American sociologist, Merton suggested that mainstream culture, especially
in the United States, is saturated with dreams of opportunity, freedom and
prosperity; as Merton put it, the American Dream. Most people buy into
this dream and it becomes a powerful cultural and psychological motivation.
Merton also used the term anomie, but it meant something slightly different for
him than it did for Durkheim. If the social structure of opportunities is unequal
and prevents the majority from realizing the dream, some of them will turn to
illegitimate means (crime) in order to realize it. Others will retreat or drop out
into deviant sub-cultures (gang members, “hobos”: urban homeless drunks and
drug abusers).
6. Albert Cohen Strain Theory
This theory tied anomie theory with Freud’s reaction formation idea, suggesting
that delinquency among lower class youth is a reaction against the social
norms of the middle class. Some youth, especially from poorer areas where
opportunities are scarce, might adopt social norms specific to those places
which may include “toughness” and disrespect for authority. Criminal acts may
result when youths conform to norms of the deviant subculture
7. Robert Agnew Strain Theory (General Strain
Theory)
In the 1990s, Agnew asserted that Strain Theory could be central in explaining
crime and deviance, but that it needed revision, so that it was not tied to social
class or cultural variables, but refocused on self-generated norms. He therefore
proposed a General Strain Theory that is neither structural nor interpersonal,
but emotional and focused on an individual’s immediate social environment.
He argued that an individual’s actual or anticipated failure to achieve positive
valued goals, actual or anticipated removal of positively valued stimuli, and
actual or anticipated presentation of negative stimuli all results in strain.
8. Richard Cloward and Lloyd Ohlin Strain Theory
Suggested that delinquency can result from differential opportunity for lower
class youth. Such youth may be tempted to take up criminal activities, choosing
an illegitimate path that provides them more lucrative economic benefits than
conventional, over legal options such as minimum wage-paying jobs available
to Steven F. Messner and Richard Rosenfeld
9. Messner and Rosenfeld (1994) Strain Theory
Proposed a Theory of Institutional Anomie (sometimes called “American
Dream” Theory) representing a radicalization of Merton’s key ideas by linking
Strain Theory to Social Control Theory and focusing on contradictions in both
the cultural system and the opportunity structures to be pursued by everyone in
a mass society dominated by huge multinational corporations.
Messner and Rosenfeld’s analysis centers on the criminogenic influence of a
variety of social institutions in American society. Drawing heavily on Marxist
theory, they argued that the cultural penchant for pecuniary rewards is so
all-encompassing that the major social institutions (i.e., the polity, religion,
education, and the family) lose their ability to regulate passions and behavior.
Instead of promoting other social goals, these institutions primarily support the
quest for material success (i.e., the American dream) [46; 47; 48].
10. SYMBOLIC
INTERACTIONISM
Symbolic interactionism draws on the phenomenology of Edmund Husserl
and George Herbert Mead. This perspective relies on the symbolic meaning
that people develop and rely upon in the process of social interaction. Thus,
society is thought to be socially constructed through human interpretation.
People interpret one another’s behavior and it is these interpretations that
form the social bond. These interpretations are called the “definition of
the situation.” Although symbolic interactionism traces its origins to Max
Weber’s assertion that individuals act according to their interpretation of
the meaning of their world, the American philosopher George Herbert
Mead introduced this perspective to American sociology in the 1920s.
11. DRIFT THEORY
Although it was not presented as a Social Control Theory, David Matza (1964)
also adopted the concept of free will. Delinquent youth were neither
compelled nor committed to their delinquent actions, but were simply less
receptive to other more conventional traditions (1964:28). Thus, delinquent
youth were “drifting” between criminal and non-criminal behavior, and
were relatively free to choose whether to take part in delinquency
12. ROUTINE ACTIVITY
THEORY
Routine activity theory, developed by Marcus Felson and Lawrence
Cohen, drew upon control theories and explained crime in terms of crime
opportunities that occur in everyday life. A crime opportunity requires that
elements converge in time and place including the following:
a. a motivated offender;
b. suitable target or victim; and
c. lack of a capable guardian.
A guardian at a place, such as a street, could include security guards or
even ordinary pedestrians who would witness the criminal act and possibly
intervene or report it to the police. The Theory was expanded by John Eck,
who added a fourth element of “place manager” such as rental property
managers who can take nuisance abatement measures.
13. LABELING THEORY BY
BECKER AND LEMERT
Labeling Theory proposed that deviance is socially constructed through
reaction instead of action. In other words, according to this theory, no
behavior is inherently deviant on its own. Instead, it’s the reaction to the
behavior that makes it deviant or not. It argues that anyone facing such
an overwhelming, negative labeling social reaction will eventually become
more like the label because that is the only way out of their identity formation.
It points out that sometimes it’s best to do nothing (for minor
offending), and that there are few reintegrative rituals designed to help
people fit back into their communities
14. CONTROL THEORY BY
TRAVIS HIRSCHI
Hirschi’s Control Theory is significant to crime prevention; this approach
is also called as social bond or social control theory. Instead of looking
for factors that make people become criminal, this theory tries to explain
why people do not become criminal. Thus, Hirschi identified four main
characteristics such as the following:
a. attachment to others;
b. belief in moral validity of rules;
c. commitment to achievement; and
d. involvement in conventional activities.
15. The more a person features those characteristics, the less are the chances
that he or she becomes deviant (or criminal). On the other hand, if those
factors are not present in a person, it is more likely that he or she might
become criminal.
Hirschi expanded on this theory, with the idea that a person with low self-
control is more likely to become criminal. Social bonds, through peers,
parents, and others, can have a countering effect on one’s low self-control.
For families of low socio-economic status, a factor that distinguishes
families with delinquent children from those who are not delinquent is the
control exerted by parents or chaperonage. Control Theory proposed that
exploiting the process of socialization and social learning builds self-control
and reduces the inclination to indulge in behavior recognized as antisocial.
