Epistemology and Learning for Researchers and Teachers

Understanding How We Know
What We Know~ An Exploration
of Epistemologies
Presentation by
Dr.K.Prabhakar

Dedicated to Paulo Freire (1921—1997)
• Paulo Freire was one of the most influential philosophers of education of the twentieth century.
He worked wholeheartedly to help people both through his philosophy and his practice of critical
pedagogy. A native of Brazil, Freire’s goal was to eradicate illiteracy among people from previously
colonized countries and continents. His insights were rooted in the social and political realities of
the children and grandchildren of former slaves. His ideas, life, and work served to ameliorate the
living conditions of oppressed people.
• This article examines key events in Freire’s life, as well as his ideas regarding pedagogy and
political philosophy. In particular, it examines conscientização, critical pedagogy, Freire’s criticism
of the banking model of education, and the process of internalization of one’s oppressors. As a
humanist, Freire defended the theses that: (a) it is every person’s ontological vocation to become
more human; (b) both the oppressor and the oppressed are diminished in their humanity when
their relationship is characterized by oppressive dynamics; (c) through the process of
conscientização, the oppressors and oppressed can come to understand their own power; and (d)
ultimately the oppressed will be able to authentically change their circumstances only if their
intentions and actions are consistent with their goal. (https://iep.utm.edu/freire/ )
02-05-2024 Epistemologies for Faculty Development Programme for CUJ 2

The concepts that I, as a teacher, used but did not fully
understand until I ventured into epistemology
Student Centric learning
Inclusive learning
Critical thinking

What is the role of epistemology for teachers, and what
questions do I wish to answer in this discussion?
• What is student centric learning?
• Eighty five percent of Indians are considered as functional
illiterates?
• Is it different from what is being practiced for centuries?
• It is to promote critical thinking~ What to think and how to
think?
• Now question is how to promote critical thinking?
• How individual student need to be taken through the path of
learning?
• What are rubrics and how to prepare them for each course?

What is not?
• Student Centric learning is not just making everyone talk or just be
noisy in the class or asking what is your opinion, or just asking
questions in the class or just CP in class.
• Inclusive learning not just admitting students with disabilities or
providing ramps.
• Critical thinking- Thinking beyond the syllabus. Syllabus is greatest
hurdle for you.

Pedagogy
• Pedagogy (/ˈpɛdəɡɒdʒi, -ɡoʊdʒi, -ɡɒɡi/), most commonly understood as the approach to
teaching, is the theory and practice of learning, and how this process influences, and is influenced
by, the social, political, and psychological development of learners. Pedagogy, taken as an
academic discipline, is the study of how knowledge and skills are imparted in an educational
context, and it considers the interactions that take place during learning. Both the theory and
practice of pedagogy vary greatly as they reflect different social, political, and cultural contexts.
• Pedagogy is often described as the act of teaching. The pedagogy adopted by teachers shapes
their actions, judgments, and teaching strategies by taking into consideration theories of learning,
understandings of students and their needs, and the backgrounds and interests of individual
students. Its aims may range from furthering liberal education (the general development of
human potential) to the narrower specifics of vocational education (the imparting and acquisition
of specific skills). Conventional western pedagogies view the teacher as knowledge holder and
student as the recipient of knowledge (described by Paulo Freire as "banking methods"), but
theories of pedagogy increasingly identify the student as an agent and the teacher as a facilitator.
• Instructive strategies are governed by the pupil's background knowledge and experience,
situation and environment, as well as learning goals set by the student and teacher. One example
would be the Socratic method. (Wikiwand)

Pedagogy
• The term 'Pedagogy,' refers to the strategy of how educators teach, in practice
and theory. Pedagogy is shaped by the teaching beliefs of a teacher and relates
the interplay between culture and a variety of methods of teaching.
• Pedagogy relates to the study of teaching strategies and how they influence
students.
• A thoughtfully considered and effective pedagogy is crucial for helping students
to learn more successfully and in helping them develop high-order thinking skills.
• Flip learning presents unique challenges and opportunities for educators, and a
strong pedagogy is essential for ensuring that students can learn effectively
through online learning.
• This may include the use of age-appropriate teaching strategies and materials, as
well as an understanding of the stages of child development and how these can
affect learning.

How does pedagogy affect the learning process?
• The most effective pedagogies encompass a range of teaching
techniques, including a detailed guide for teachers, structured and
whole-class group work, guided learning, assessment practice and
individual activity.
• These pedagogies focus on improving higher-order thinking and
meta-cognition and make good use of questioning and dialogue in
doing so. At Structural Learning, we try to steer away from teaching
fads such as learning styles (it was once thought that children should
be labelled a visual learner, a kinesthetic learner or an aural learner).

Epistemology is theory of knowledge
Epistemology is the branch of philosophy that
studies the nature, origin, and scope of
knowledge, as well as the relationship between
the mind and reality. It's also known as the theory
of knowledge, and the term comes from the
Greek words epistēmē ("knowledge") and logos
("reason").

Why Epistemology for teachers?
• One popular pedagogy for teaching is Constructivist pedagogy, which
emphasizes the importance of active learning and student engagement in
the learning process. This approach emphasizes the idea that knowledge is
constructed by the learner, rather than simply being transmitted by the
teacher.
• Learning is social and collaborative. Students learn best by working
together with others to share ideas and solve problems.
• Knowledge is constructed, not transmitted. Teachers act as facilitators of
learning, rather than simply transmitters of information.
• Assessment is focused on understanding. Teachers assess student learning
by looking for evidence of understanding, not just memorization.

Higher-order thinking refers to the complex
cognitive skills and mental processes
They go beyond simple memorization and recall of
information. It involves the ability to analyze, synthesize,
evaluate, and create new knowledge or solutions.
Higher-order thinking skills are essential for solving complex
problems, making well-reasoned decisions, and promoting
critical and creative thinking.

Metacognitive knowledge
• This refers to the understanding and knowledge about one's own cognitive
processes. It includes knowledge about oneself as a learner (strengths,
weaknesses, preferences), knowledge about different tasks and strategies, and
knowledge about when and why to use particular strategies.
• Metacognitive regulation: This involves actively monitoring and regulating one's
cognitive processes while engaged in a task. It includes processes such as
planning, monitoring progress, evaluating outcomes, and making adjustments as
needed.
• Self-monitoring: Metacognition involves the ability to monitor one's level of
understanding and task performance. This allows individuals to recognize when
they are having difficulties and need to adjust their approach or seek additional
information or support.
• Self-reflection: Metacognition involves reflecting on one's thinking processes,
strategies, and outcomes. This reflection can lead to insights about how to
improve and become a more effective learner or problem-solver.

System Thinking
• System thinking involves identifying the relationships and interdependencies between the various
elements that make up a system. It recognizes that each component is connected to and affects
the behavior of the whole system.
• Seeing wholes: Rather than breaking things down into smaller parts, system thinking emphasizes
looking at the entire system as a unified whole. This allows for a better understanding of how the
system functions as an integrated entity.
• Exploring perspectives: System thinking encourages considering multiple perspectives and
viewpoints when analyzing a system. It recognizes that different stakeholders may have different
interests, goals, and perceptions of the system.
• Understanding complexity: Systems can be complex, with non-linear relationships, feedback
loops, and emergent properties that arise from the interactions between components.
• System thinking helps in understanding and managing this complexity. Identifying patterns and
behaviors: System thinking involves identifying recurring patterns and behaviors within a system,
as well as understanding how these patterns emerge from the structure and interactions of the
system components. Anticipating consequences: By considering the interconnections and
feedback loops within a system, system thinking allows for better anticipation of the potential
consequences of actions or changes within the system.

Critical Thinking
• Rationality: Critical thinking involves using reason and logic to analyze
information objectively and draw well-justified conclusions, rather than relying on
emotions or anecdotal evidence.
• Self-awareness: It requires an awareness of one's own biases, assumptions, and
preconceptions, and a willingness to challenge them and consider alternative
perspectives.
• Open-mindedness: Critical thinkers approach issues with an open mind, consider
diverse viewpoints, and are willing to change their stance when presented with
compelling evidence.
• Evidence-based decision making: Critical thinking relies on evaluating the validity,
reliability, and relevance of information and using it to support or refute
arguments and conclusions.
• Questioning: It involves asking probing questions, challenging assumptions, and
seeking clarification to gain a deeper understanding of issues.

What is inclusion?
• The aim of inclusion is to ensure that all students, including those
with disabilities and other differences in learning, experience an
equitable access to education. This means a commitment to remove
any obstacles that may prevent the student from thriving and
reaching their full potential. Inclusion is based on the principles of
respect, equity and recognition of diversity in society.
• All students benefit when an inclusive environment is fostered in the
classroom. This involves creating a safe and supportive learning space
where differences are valued, respected, and celebrated.

Summary so far
• Whatever learning environment you are operating in, it's good practice to utilize the
research that is available to us. We all share the same goal in enhancing the learning
experience of children.
• Our focus has always been on developing deep learning experiences. This involves
unpicking the learning process and designing effective teaching strategies that really get
children thinking.
• Pedagogy plays a crucial role in determining the learning outcomes of students. A well-
designed pedagogical approach can foster critical thinking, problem-solving skills, and
creativity among students.
• On the other hand, a poor pedagogical approach can lead to disengagement, boredom,
and lack of motivation among students.
• Therefore, it is important for educators to understand the impact of pedagogy on the
learning process and to continuously improve their teaching methods to ensure positive
learning outcomes for their students.(Source: https://www.structural-
learning.com/post/pedagogy-for-teaching-a-classroom-guide )

Introduction to Epistemology

Epistemology
• Epistemology (/ɪˌpɪstəˈmɒlədʒi/ ⓘ ih-PISS-tə-MOL-ə-jee; from Ancient
Greek ἐπιστήμη (epistḗmē) 'knowledge', and -logy) is the branch of
philosophy concerned with knowledge. Epistemologists study the nature, origin,
and scope of knowledge, epistemic justification, the rationality of belief, and
various related issues. Debates in contemporary epistemology are generally
clustered around four core areas:
• The philosophical analysis of the nature of knowledge and the conditions required
for a belief to constitute knowledge, such as truth and justification;
• Potential sources of knowledge and justified belief, such
as perception, reason, memory, and testimony
• The structure of a body of knowledge or justified belief, including whether all
justified beliefs must be derived from justified foundational beliefs or whether
justification requires only a coherent set of beliefs; and,
• Philosophical scepticism, which questions the possibility of knowledge, and
related problems, such as whether skepticism poses a threat to our ordinary
knowledge claims and whether it is possible to refute skeptical arguments.
(Wikiwand)

Elaboration
• Epistemology aims to answer questions such as
• "What do people know?",
• "What does it mean to say that people know something?",
• "What makes justified beliefs justified?", and
• "How do people know that they know?"
• Specialties in epistemology ask questions such as "How can people
create formal models about issues related to knowledge?" (in formal
epistemology), "What are the historical conditions of changes in
different kinds of knowledge?" (in historical epistemology), "What are
the methods, aims, and subject matter of epistemological inquiry?"
(in metaepistemology), and "How do people know together?"
(in social epistemology).

Etymology of the word
• The etymology of the word epistemology is derived from the ancient Greek
epistēmē, meaning "knowledge, understanding, skill, scientific knowledge", and
the English suffix -ology, meaning "the study or discipline of (what is indicated by
the first element)". The word epistemology first appeared in 1847, in a review in
New York's Eclectic Magazine :The title of one of the principal works of Fichte is
'Wissenschaftslehre,' which, after the analogy of technology ... we render
epistemology.
• The word was first used to present a philosophy in English by Scottish philosopher
James Frederick Ferrier in 1854. It was the title of the first section of his Institutes
of Metaphysics:
• This section of the science is properly termed the Epistemology—the doctrine or
theory of knowing, just as ontology is the science of being.... It answers the
general question, 'What is knowing and the known?'—or more shortly, 'What is
knowledge?'

Concepts
• The entry "Knowledge How" of the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
mentions that introductory classes to epistemology often start their
analysis of knowledge by pointing out three different senses of "knowing"
something: "knowing that" (knowing the truth of propositions), "knowing
how" (understanding how to perform certain actions), and "knowing by
acquaintance" (directly perceiving an object, being familiar with it, or
otherwise coming into contact with it).
• This modern teaching of epistemology is primarily concerned with the first
of these forms of knowledge, propositional knowledge. All three senses of
"knowing" can be seen in the ordinary use of the word. In mathematics, it
can be known that 2 + 2 = 4, but there is also knowing how to add two
numbers, and knowing a person (e.g., knowing other persons, or knowing
oneself), place (e.g., one's hometown), thing (e.g., cars), or activity (e.g.,
addition).

ONTOLOGY
• As a first approximation, ontology is the
study of "what is”. Ontological statements
are answers to questions of whether
something fundamentally exists or not
(e.g. numbers, institutions, or causal
relations).
• the most classical ontological question is
the following: "Is there a God?"
• Ontological questions and assumptions are
often determined prior to empirical
research.
• They represent a set of beliefs about the
nature of the world and to a certain extent
influence the questions researchers ask, as
well as the ways in which they do science.
Epistemologies for Faculty Development Programme for CUJ 25
02-05-2024

A Priori and A Posteriori
• The terms “a priori” and “a posteriori” are used primarily to denote the
foundations upon which a proposition is known.
• A given proposition is knowable a priori if it can be known independent of any
experience other than the experience of learning the language in which the
proposition is expressed, whereas a proposition that is knowable a posteriori is
known on the basis of experience. For example, the proposition that all bachelors
are unmarried is a priori, and the proposition that it is raining outside now is a
posteriori.
• The distinction between the two terms is epistemological and immediately
relates to the justification for why a given item of knowledge is held. For instance,
a person who knows (a priori) that “All bachelors are unmarried” need not have
experienced the unmarried status of all—or indeed any—bachelors to justify this
proposition.
• By contrast, if I know that “It is raining outside,” knowledge of this proposition
must be justified by appealing to someone’s experience of the weather.

Conceptual
Clarity
• Numbers
• Institutions or organizations
• Causal relationships.
02-05-2024

How we study
Economics?
Take the test.
02-05-2024

Which problems are
central to Economy?
02-05-2024

Central Problem
or Problems
addressed by
economy – SCDU
• Scarcity: Natural resources like land, capital, labour, and
energy are scarce and therefore the economic problem
lies in the processes of their distribution.
• Change: Economic organizations are constantly evolving,
the dynamics of this process are the distinctive
aspect of economics.
• Dominance: Power and domination of one group over
another in material as well as social terms is the driving
force of economic phenomena.
• Uncertainty: The future is uncertain and our knowledge
about it is fallible. Therefore, the beliefs we hold about
the future in order to deal with uncertainty, and changes
in these beliefs, are the central determinant of the
economy.
• These problems give rise to Volatility, Uncertainty,
Complexity and Ambiguity.
02-05-2024

Knowing this
what kind of
economics you
will generate?
• Please write in a paper and submit to
the coordinator.
02-05-2024

02-05-2024

Where do we
start? The Map
of Things
02-05-2024

Things
• The "things" analysed range from the
small (individuals) to the very large
(systems). That does not mean that a
systemic perspective denies the existence
of individuals, but that according to such a
perspective systems are more important
when it comes to the economy.
• Micro: Individuals and their motivations,
relations, and actions.
• Meso: Groups and organisations (or
institutions such as embedded social
norms) like firms, sectors, specific markets,
as well as subsystems like the financial
system.
• Macro: Systems and structures like the
environment or capitalism.
02-05-2024

Individual and
Economy
02-05-2024

Do things have
independence
from the
surrounding?
02-05-2024

Atomist-
Middle-
Contexual
• Atomist: Things like individuals, groups or
institutions have an independent
existence. Their motivations and beliefs
come from within themselves and their
identity and essence does not change due
to environmental alterations.
• Middle: Actors exist as independent
entities. Yet there are mechanisms at
higher levels, like context, which influence
these actors. An abstract analysis
therefore has to respect both individual
essences and those contextual elements,
which can be identified as crucial.
• Contextual: Things are always relational
and interdependent, therefore there is no
way to conceive of them as independent of
their context, since without the
interactions with the structure and other
actors in which they exist they would be
fundamentally different
02-05-2024

How do we
consider time?
• This question asks whether it is more
appropriate to conceive time in terms
of states (e.g. time 1, time 2, …) and
then compare and relate them or
whether time is a continuous process,
which is not reversible and where there
is constant change and no convergence
to a fixed point.
02-05-2024

Static-Middle-Dynamic
Static-Middle-Dynamic
• Static: Time is a succession of
states, which can be identified.
• Middle: Both static and procedural
elements are present in time.
• Dynamic: It is of primary
importance to think in a procedural
way, things are constantly changing
and evolving in time.
02-05-2024

Epistemology
• Epistemology is the study of knowledge
and justified belief.
• It is concerned with questions like:
• What are the necessary and sufficient
conditions of knowledge?
• What are its sources?
• What is its structure, and what are its
limits?
• It addresses what we can know and how
we can arrive at knowledge.
• The way in which researchers answer
these and other epistemological questions
determines which assumptions they make
regarding the nature of their knowledge
claims about the world and the confidence
they assign to these statements.
02-05-2024

Realism -
Constructivist
• Realism: there is a real world independent
of human conceptions and we can observe
it. This definition of realism differs from
the realism-instrumentalism dichotomy
regarding assumptions that have been
debated in economics following Milton
Friedman's 1953 Essays in Positive
Economics.
• Middle: There is a real world, but also a
discursive world. It is the latter in
which scientific access to the real world
takes place. The relationship between the
two is interdependent and complex.
• Constructivist: What we can observe and
talk about in the (social) sciences are only
interpretations produced by ourselves.
These interpretations give meaning and
thereby create the world. Hence, the task
of science is to understand those realms
of meaning.
02-05-2024

How you are
going to drive
your research or
your pedagogical
plan ?
• This question is concerned with whether a perspective
wants to apply a generalized theoretical framework on many
or all aspects of the economy or whether a specific issue or
phenomena is considered to be very important and thus has
to be analysed in depth while using different frameworks
and theories.
• Perspective Driven: a way of thinking about economic
interactions (e.g. in terms of incentives, equilibria or
relations of production) is deemed to be a good way of
getting insights about different objects. It is assumed that
this particular way of thinking is capable of yielding valuable
insights about all kinds of economic and social phenomena.
• Contested: Both tendencies are present. A particular object
is of interest but a certain way of thinking is thought to be
useful as well. There is a degree of conflict between those
who try to move the perspective (or the discipline as a
whole) to one of the two categories.
• Object Driven: A particular object is deemed to be very
interesting and decisive for economic understanding. Hence,
the object is analysed from a wide array of different ways of
thinking.
02-05-2024

Methodology
• Methodology refers to the question of
how to determine what counts as
justified knowledge.
• Often, methodological discussions
establish a set of rules or conditions
that have to be met in order for
something to be scientific.
• A certain methodological standpoint
often advocates specific research
methods over others, since they are
perceived to meet the requirements
for knowledge in a more satisfactory
and appropriate way than alternative
forms of inquiry.
02-05-2024

02-05-2024

Which
Methodology to
use or what is
your research
design?
• Qualitative
• Quantitative
• Mixed methods
02-05-2024

Hypotheses
• Hypotheses are proposals for explaining or
understanding a certain phenomenon.
They can be derived from already existing
theory (logic, for example), from empirical
observations or from a combination of the
two.
• Deductive: New hypotheses are logically
derived from a set of axioms and
established laws.
• Middle: Axioms, empirical observations
and conceptualizations are intertwined
and the researcher goes back and forth
whilst developing the hypothesis
(associated concepts are abduction,
retroduction, dialectics).
• Inductive: Empirical observations and
generalizations based on observations lead
to new hypotheses.
02-05-2024

Abductive
reasoning and
Retrodiction
• Abductive reasoning is to abduce (or take
away) a logical assumption, explanation,
inference, conclusion, hypothesis, or best
guess from an observation or set of
observations. Because the conclusion is
merely a best guess, the conclusion that is
drawn may or may not be true.
• Retrodiction is the provisional adoption of
a hypothesis, because every possible
consequence of it is capable of
experimental verification, so that the
persevering application of the same
method may be expected to reveal its
disagreement with facts, if it does
so disagree. Retrodiction is the act of
making a prediction about the past using
information from the present or other past
events. For example, climate models can
"retrodict" climatic change by using past
climatic data to predict current climate.
02-05-2024

How can we
generate and
evaluate a theory
or a hypothesis at
the abstract level
• Answers to this question illustrate the
importance different perspectives attach to
logical coherence, formalism and long chains of
reasoning when judging whether a hypothesis
is scientific or not. Perspectives that reject
these standards as criteria for science choose
to engage in a broad variety of practices and
reasoning, even though these might appear to
be contradictory in the light of classical logic.
• Formalistic: The hypothesis can be derived
from axioms in a logical way. There were no
logical mistakes made.
• Middle: Formalistic logic as well as other forms
of reasoning are applied.
• Broad reasoning: Non-formalistic techniques
such as counterfactuals, thought experiments,
deconstruction, (changing) conceptualizations
and fuzzy sets, heuristics, storytelling, etc. are
applied in order to assess the validity of a
hypothesis in a more crude and less exact
manner.
02-05-2024

How can we relate a theory or a hypothesis to
reality?
• This question assesses how empirical observation is conceptualized by different
perspectives. Some perspectives have very clear cut rules on how to collect and
make sense of empirical observations and data. Others use ways that are less
specified and may vary depending on the nature of the research.
• Standardised and prescriptive methodology: Empirical testing is carried out in a
standard and prescribed way, which can be justified by reference to both the
philosophy of science and scientific practice. A prominent example
is the scientific method.
• Middle: A combination of standardized ways of relating theory to the world and
non-standard instruments.
• Idiosyncratic: An adequate way of referring to reality depends on more research
and is always context dependent. This category refers to methods which are only
defined in very broad terms such as process tracing.
02-05-2024

Post Keynesian
Economics
• Effective demand
• Tendency to instability (e.g by animal
spirits)
• Capitalist monetary production
economy
• Macro economic paradoxes
• Fundamental uncertainty
• Hierarchy of markets
• Endogenous money creation
• Path dependency and historical time
• Non-neutrality of money
02-05-2024

Thank you

Epistemology and Learning for Researchers and Teachers

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