Plastics are a wide range of synthetic or semi-synthetic materials that use polymers as a main ingredient. Their plasticity makes it possible for plastics to be moulded, extruded or pressed into solid objects of various shapes. This adaptability, plus a wide range of other properties, such as being lightweight, durable, flexible, and inexpensive to produce, has led to its widespread use. Plastics typically are made through human industrial systems. Most modern plastics are derived from fossil fuel-based chemicals like natural gas or petroleum; however, recent industrial methods use variants made from renewable materials, such as corn or cotton derivatives.[1] 9.2 billion tonnes of plastic are estimated to have been made between 1950 and 2017. More than half this plastic has been produced since 2004. In 2020, 400 million tonnes of plastic were produced.[2] If global trends on plastic demand continue, it is estimated that by 2050 annual global plastic production will reach over 1.1 billion tonnes. The success and dominance of plastics starting in the early 20th century has caused widespread environmental problems,[3] due to their slow decomposition rate in natural ecosystems. Most plastic produced has not been reused, or is incapable of reuse, either being captured in landfills or persisting in the environment as plastic pollution and microplastics. Plastic pollution can be found in all the world's major water bodies, for example, creating garbage patches in all of the world's oceans and contaminating terrestrial ecosystems. Of all the plastic discarded so far, some 14% has been incinerated and less than 10% has been recycled.[2] In developed economies, about a third of plastic is used in packaging and roughly the same in buildings in applications such as piping, plumbing or vinyl siding.[4] Other uses include automobiles (up to 20% plastic[4]), furniture, and toys.[4] In the developing world, the applications of plastic may differ; 42% of India's consumption is used in packaging.[4] In the medical field, polymer implants and other medical devices are derived at least partially from plastic. Worldwide, about 50 kg of plastic is produced annually per person, with production doubling every ten years. The world's first fully synthetic plastic was Bakelite, invented in New York in 1907, by Leo Baekeland,[5] who coined the term "plastics".[6] Dozens of different types of plastics are produced today, such as polyethylene, which is widely used in product packaging, and polyvinyl chloride (PVC), used in construction and pipes because of its strength and durability. Many chemists have contributed to the materials science of plastics, including Nobel laureate Hermann Staudinger, who has been called "the father of polymer chemistry," and Herman Mark, known as "the father of polymer physics"The word plastic derives from the Greek πλαστικός (plastikos) meaning "capable of being shaped or molded," and in turn from πλαστός (plastos) meaning "molded."

1. PLASTICS
Plastics are a wide range of synthetic or semi-synthetic materials that use polymers as a main
ingredient. Their plasticity makes it possible for plastics to be moulded, extruded or pressed into
solid objects of various shapes. This adaptability, plus a wide range of other properties, such as
being lightweight, durable, flexible, and inexpensive to produce, has led to its widespread use.
Plastics typically are made through human industrial systems. Most modern plastics are derived
from fossil fuel-based chemicals like natural gas or petroleum; however, recent industrial
methods use variants made from renewable materials, such as corn or cotton derivatives.[1]
9.2 billion tonnes of plastic are estimated to have been made between 1950 and 2017. More
than half this plastic has been produced since 2004. In 2020, 400 million tonnes of plastic were
produced.[2] If global trends on plastic demand continue, it is estimated that by 2050 annual
global plastic production will reach over 1.1 billion tonnes.
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The success and dominance of plastics starting in the early 20th century has caused
widespread environmental problems,[3] due to their slow decomposition rate in natural
ecosystems. Most plastic produced has not been reused, or is incapable of reuse, either being
captured in landfills or persisting in the environment as plastic pollution and microplastics.
Plastic pollution can be found in all the world's major water bodies, for example, creating
garbage patches in all of the world's oceans and contaminating terrestrial ecosystems. Of all the
plastic discarded so far, some 14% has been incinerated and less than 10% has been
recycled.[2]
In developed economies, about a third of plastic is used in packaging and roughly the same in
buildings in applications such as piping, plumbing or vinyl siding.[4] Other uses include
automobiles (up to 20% plastic[4]), furniture, and toys.[4] In the developing world, the
applications of plastic may differ; 42% of India's consumption is used in packaging.[4] In the
medical field, polymer implants and other medical devices are derived at least partially from
plastic. Worldwide, about 50 kg of plastic is produced annually per person, with production
doubling every ten years.
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The world's first fully synthetic plastic was Bakelite, invented in New York in 1907, by Leo
Baekeland,[5] who coined the term "plastics".[6] Dozens of different types of plastics are
produced today, such as polyethylene, which is widely used in product packaging, and polyvinyl
chloride (PVC), used in construction and pipes because of its strength and durability. Many
chemists have contributed to the materials science of plastics, including Nobel laureate

2. Hermann Staudinger, who has been called "the father of polymer chemistry," and Herman Mark,
known as "the father of polymer physics".[7]
Etymology
The word plastic derives from the Greek πλαστικός (plastikos) meaning "capable of being
shaped or molded," and in turn from πλαστός (plastos) meaning "molded."[8] As a noun the
word most commonly refers to the solid products of petrochemical-derived manufacturing.[9]
The noun plasticity refers specifically here to the deformability of the materials used in the
manufacture of plastics. Plasticity allows molding, extrusion or compression into a variety of
shapes: films, fibers, plates, tubes, bottles and boxes, among many others. Plasticity also has a
technical definition in materials science outside the scope of this article referring to the
non-reversible change in form of solid substances.
Structure
See also: Polymer
Most plastics contain organic polymers.[10] The vast majority of these polymers are formed from
chains of carbon atoms, with or without the attachment of oxygen, nitrogen or sulfur atoms.
These chains comprise many repeating units formed from monomers. Each polymer chain
consists of several thousand repeating units. The backbone is the part of the chain that is on the
main path, linking together a large number of repeat units. To customize the properties of a
plastic, different molecular groups called side chains hang from this backbone; they are usually
hung from the monomers before the monomers themselves are linked together to form the
polymer chain. The structure of these side chains influences the properties of the polymer.
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Properties and classifications
Plastics are usually classified by the chemical structure of the polymer's backbone and side
chains. Important groups classified in this way include the acrylics, polyesters, silicones,
polyurethanes, and halogenated plastics. Plastics can be classified by the chemical process
used in their synthesis, such as condensation, polyaddition, and cross-linking.[11] They can also
be classified by their physical properties, including hardness, density, tensile strength, thermal
resistance, and glass transition temperature. Plastics can additionally be classified by their
resistance and reactions to various substances and processes, such as exposure to organic
solvents, oxidation, and ionizing radiation.[12] Other classifications of plastics are based on
qualities relevant to manufacturing or product design for a particular purpose. Examples include
thermoplastics, thermosets, conductive polymers, biodegradable plastics, engineering plastics
and elastomers.
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Thermoplastics and thermosetting polymers
A plastic handle from a kitchen utensil, deformed by heat and partially melted

3. One important classification of plastics is the degree to which the chemical processes used to
make them are reversible or not.
Thermoplastics do not undergo chemical change in their composition when heated and thus can
be molded repeatedly. Examples include polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP), polystyrene
(PS), and polyvinyl chloride (PVC).[13]
Thermosets, or thermosetting polymers, can melt and take shape only once: after they have
solidified, they stay solid.[14] If reheated, thermosets decompose rather than melt. In the
thermosetting process, an irreversible chemical reaction occurs. The vulcanization of rubber is
an example of this process. Before heating in the presence of sulfur, natural rubber
(polyisoprene) is a sticky, slightly runny material; after vulcanization, the product is dry and rigid.
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Amorphous plastics and crystalline plastics
Many plastics are completely amorphous (without a highly ordered molecular structure),[15]
including thermosets, polystyrene, and methyl methacrylate (PMMA). Crystalline plastics exhibit
a pattern of more regularly spaced atoms, such as high-density polyethylene (HDPE),
polybutylene terephthalate (PBT), and polyether ether ketone (PEEK). However, some plastics
are partially amorphous and partially crystalline in molecular structure, giving them both a
melting point and one or more glass transitions (the temperature above which the extent of
localized molecular flexibility is substantially increased). These so-called semi-crystalline
plastics include polyethylene, polypropylene, polyvinyl chloride, polyamides (nylons), polyesters
and some polyurethanes.
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Conductive polymers
Main article: Conductive polymer
Intrinsically Conducting Polymers (ICP) are organic polymers that conduct electricity. While a
conductivity of up to 80 kS/cm in stretch-oriented polyacetylene,[16] has been achieved, it does
not approach that of most metals. For example, copper has a conductivity of several hundred
kS/cm.[17]
Biodegradable plastics and bioplastics
Biodegradable plastics
Main article: Biodegradable plastic
Biodegradable plastics are plastics that degrade (break down) upon exposure to sunlight or
ultra-violet radiation; water or dampness; bacteria; enzymes; or wind abrasion. Attack by
insects, such as waxworms and mealworms, can also be considered as forms of
biodegradation. Aerobic degradation requires that the plastic be exposed at the surface,
whereas anaerobic degradation would be effective in landfill or composting systems. Some
companies produce biodegradable additives to enhance biodegradation. Although starch
powder can be added as a filler to allow some plastics to degrade more easily, such treatment
does not lead to complete breakdown. Some researchers have genetically engineered bacteria

4. to synthesize completely biodegradable plastics, such as polyhydroxy butyrate (PHB); however,
these are relatively costly as of 2021.[18]
Bioplastics
Main article: Bioplastic
While most plastics are produced from petrochemicals, bioplastics are made substantially from
renewable plant materials like cellulose and starch.[19] Due both to the finite limits of fossil fuel
reserves and to rising levels of greenhouse gases caused primarily by the burning of those
fuels, the development of bioplastics is a growing field.[20][21] Global production capacity for
bio-based plastics is estimated at 327,000 tonnes per year. In contrast, global production of
polyethylene (PE) and polypropylene (PP), the world's leading petrochemical-derived
polyolefins, was estimated at over 150 million tonnes in 2015.[22]
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Plastic industry
The plastic industry includes the global production, compounding, conversion and sale of plastic
products. Although the Middle East and Russia produce most of the required petrochemical raw
materials; the production of plastic is concentrated in the global East and West. The plastic
industry comprises a huge number of companies and can be divided into several sectors:
Production
Between 1950 and 2017, 9.2 billion tonnes of plastic are estimated to have been made, with
more than half this having been produced since 2004. Since the birth of the plastic industry in
the 1950s, global production has increased enormously, reaching 400 million tonnes a year in
2021; this is up from 381 million metric tonnes in 2015 (excluding additives).[2][23] From the
1950s, rapid growth occurred in the use of plastics for packaging, in building and construction,
and in other sectors.[2] If global trends on plastic demand continue, it is estimated that by 2050
annual global plastic production will exceed 1.1 billion tonnes annually.[2]
Polypropylene plants
A Slovnaft facility in Bratislava, Slovakia
A Slovnaft facility in Bratislava, Slovakia
A SOCAR Polymer polypropylene plant in Sumgayit, Azerbaijan
A SOCAR Polymer polypropylene plant in Sumgayit, Azerbaijan
Graphs are unavailable due to technical issues. There is more info on Phabricator and on
MediaWiki.org.
Annual global plastic production 1950–2015.[23] Vertical lines denote the 1973–1975 recession
and the financial crisis of 2007–2008 which caused brief lowering of plastic production.
Plastics are produced in chemical plants by the polymerization of their starting materials
(monomers); which are almost always petrochemical in nature. Such facilities are normally large
and are visually similar to oil refineries, with sprawling pipework running throughout. The large
size of these plants allows them to exploit economies of scale. Despite this, plastic production is

5. not particularly monopolized, with about 100 companies accounting for 90% of global
production.[24] This includes a mixture of private and state-owned enterprises. Roughly half of
all production takes place in East Asia, with China being the largest single producer. Major
international producers include:
Dow Chemical
LyondellBasell
Exxonmobil
SABIC
BASF
Sibur
Shin-Etsu Chemical
Indorama Ventures
Sinopec
Braskem
Global plastic production (2020)[25]
RegionGlobal production
China 31%
Japan 3%
Rest of Asia 17%
NAFTA19%
Latin America 4%
Europe16%
CIS 3%
Middle East & Africa 7%
Historically, Europe and North America have dominated global plastics production. However,
since 2010 Asia has emerged as a significant producer, with China accounting for 31% of total
plastic resin production in 2020.[25] Regional differences in the volume of plastics production
are driven by user demand, the price of fossil fuel feedstocks, and investments made in the
petrochemical industry. For example, since 2010 over US$200 billion has been invested in the
United States in new plastic and chemical plants, stimulated by the low cost of raw materials. In
the European Union (EU), too, heavy investments have been made in the plastics industry,
which employs over 1.6 million people with a turnover of more than 360 billion euros per year. In
China in 2016 there were over 15,000 plastic manufacturing companies, generating more than
US$366 billion in revenue.[2]
In 2017, the global plastics market was dominated by thermoplastics– polymers that can be
melted and recast. Thermoplastics include polyethylene (PE), polyethylene terephthalate (PET),
polypropylene (PP), polyvinyl chloride (PVC), polystyrene (PS) and synthetic fibres, which
together represent 86% of all plastics.[2]
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Compounding

6. Plastic compounding scheme for a thermosoftening material
Plastic is not sold as a pure unadulterated substance, but is instead mixed with various
chemicals and other materials, which are collectively known as additives. These are added
during the compounding stage and include substances such as stabilizers, plasticizers and
dyes, which are intended to improve the lifespan, workability or appearance of the final item. In
some cases, this can involve mixing different types of plastic together to form a polymer blend,
such as high impact polystyrene. Large companies may do their own compounding prior to
production, but some producers have it done by a third party. Companies that specialize in this
work are known as Compounders.
The compounding of thermosetting plastic is relatively straightforward; as it remains liquid until it
is cured into its final form. For thermosoftening materials, which are used to make the majority of
products, it is necessary to melt the plastic in order to mix-in the additives. This involves heating
it to anywhere between 150–320 °C (300–610 °F). Molten plastic is viscous and exhibits laminar
flow, leading to poor mixing. Compounding is therefore done using extrusion equipment, which
is able to supply the necessary heat and mixing to give a properly dispersed product.
The concentrations of most additives are usually quite low, however high levels can be added to
create Masterbatch products. The additives in these are concentrated but still properly
dispersed in the host resin. Masterbatch granules can be mixed with cheaper bulk polymer and
will release their additives during processing to give a homogeneous final product. This can be
cheaper than working with a fully compounded material and is particularly common for the
introduction of colour.
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Converting
Short video on injection molding (9 min 37 s)
See caption
Blow molding a plastic drinks bottle
Companies that produce finished goods are known as converters (sometimes processors). The
vast majority of plastics produced worldwide are thermosoftening and must be heated until
molten in order to be molded. Various sorts of extrusion equipment exist which can then form
the plastic into almost any shape.
Film blowing - Plastic films (carrier bags, sheeting)
Blow molding - Small thin-walled hollow objects in large quantities (drinks bottles, toys)
Rotational molding - Large thick-walled hollow objects (IBC tanks)
Injection molding - Solid objects (phone cases, keyboards)
Spinning - Produces fibers (nylon, spandex etc.)
For thermosetting materials the process is slightly different, as the plastics are liquid to begin
with and but must be cured to give solid products, but much of the equipment is broadly similar.
The most commonly produced plastic consumer products include packaging made from LDPE
(e.g. bags, containers, food packaging film), containers made from HDPE (e.g. milk bottles,

7. shampoo bottles, ice cream tubs), and PET (e.g. bottles for water and other drinks). Together
these products account for around 36% of plastics use in the world. Most of them (e.g.
disposable cups, plates, cutlery, takeaway containers, carrier bags) are used for only a short
period, many for less than a day. The use of plastics in building and construction, textiles,
transportation and electrical equipment also accounts for a substantial share of the plastics
market. Plastic items used for such purposes generally have longer life spans. They may be in
use for periods ranging from around five years (e.g. textiles and electrical equipment) to more
than 20 years (e.g. construction materials, industrial machinery).[2]
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Plastic consumption differs among countries and communities, with some form of plastic having
made its way into most people's lives. North America (i.e. the North American Free Trade
Agreement or NAFTA region) accounts for 21% of global plastic consumption, closely followed
by China (20%) and Western Europe (18%). In North America and Europe there is high per
capita plastic consumption (94 kg and 85 kg/capita/year, respectively). In China there is lower
per capita consumption (58 kg/capita/year), but high consumption nationally because of its large
population.[2]
Types of plastics
Commodity plastics
Chemical structures and uses of some common plastics
Around 70% of global production is concentrated in six major polymer types, the so-called
commodity plastics. Unlike most other plastics these can often be identified by their resin
identification code (RIC):
Polyethylene terephthalate (PET or PETE)
High-density polyethylene (HDPE or PE-HD)
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC or V)
Low-density polyethylene (LDPE or PE-LD),
Polypropylene (PP)
Polystyrene (PS)
Polyurethanes (PUR) and PP&A fibres[26] are often also included as major commodity classes,
although they usually lack RICs, as they are chemically quite diverse groups. These materials
are inexpensive, versatile and easy to work with, making them the preferred choice for the mass
production everyday objects. Their biggest single application is in packaging, with some 146
million tonnes being used this way in 2015, equivalent to 36% of global production. Due to their
dominance; many of the properties and problems commonly associated with plastics, such as
pollution stemming from their poor biodegradability, are ultimately attributable to commodity
plastics.
A huge number of plastics exist beyond the commodity plastics, with many having exceptional
properties.
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8. Global plastic production by polymer type (2015)[23]
Polymer Production (Mt) Percentage of all plastics Polymer type Thermal
character
Low-density polyethylene (LDPE) 64 15.7% Polyolefin Thermoplastic
High-density polyethylene (HDPE) 52 12.8% Polyolefin Thermoplastic
polypropylene (PP) 68 16.7% Polyolefin Thermoplastic
Polystyrene (PS) 25 6.1% Unsaturated polyolefin Thermoplastic
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) 38 9.3% Halogenated Thermoplastic
Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) 33 8.1% Condensation Thermoplastic
Polyurethane (PUR) 27 6.6% Condensation Thermoset[27]
PP&A Fibers[26] 59 14.5% Condensation Thermoplastic
All Others 16 3.9% Various Varies
Additives 25 6.1% - -
Total 407 100% - -
Engineering plastics
Engineering plastics are more robust and are used to make products such as vehicle parts,
building and construction materials, and some machine parts. In some cases they are polymer
blends formed by mixing different plastics together (ABS, HIPS etc.). Engineering plastics can
replace metals in vehicles, lowering their weight and improving fuel efficiency by 6–8%. Roughly
50% of the volume of modern cars is made of plastic, but this only accounts for 12–17% of the
vehicle weight.[28]
Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS): electronic equipment cases (e.g. computer monitors,
printers, keyboards) and drainage pipe
High impact polystyrene (HIPS): refrigerator liners, food packaging and vending cups
Polycarbonate (PC): compact discs, eyeglasses, riot shields, security windows, traffic lights, and
lenses
Polycarbonate + acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (PC + ABS): a blend of PC and ABS that
creates a stronger plastic used in car interior and exterior parts, and in mobile phone bodies
Polyethylene + acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (PE + ABS): a slippery blend of PE and ABS used
in low-duty dry bearings
Polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) (acrylic): contact lenses (of the original "hard" variety), glazing
(best known in this form by its various trade names around the world; e.g. Perspex, Plexiglas,
and Oroglas), fluorescent-light diffusers, and rear light covers for vehicles. It also forms the
basis of artistic and commercial acrylic paints, when suspended in water with the use of other
agents.
Silicones (polysiloxanes): heat-resistant resins used mainly as sealants but also used for
high-temperature cooking utensils and as a base resin for industrial paints
Urea-formaldehyde (UF): one of the aminoplasts used as a multi-colorable alternative to
phenolics: used as a wood adhesive (for plywood, chipboard, hardboard) and electrical switch
housings
High-performance plastics

9. High-performance plastics are usually expensive, with their use limited to specialised
applications which make use of their superior properties.
Aramids: best known for their use in making body armor, this class of heat-resistant and strong
synthetic fibers are also used in aerospace and military applications, includes Kevlar and
Nomex, and Twaron.
Ultra-high-molecular-weight polyethylenes
Polyetheretherketone (PEEK): strong, chemical- and heat-resistant thermoplastic; its
biocompatibility allows for use in medical implant applications and aerospace moldings. It is one
of the most expensive commercial polymers.
Polyetherimide (PEI) (Ultem): a high-temperature, chemically stable polymer that does not
crystallize
Polyimide: a high-temperature plastic used in materials such as Kapton tape
Polysulfone: high-temperature melt-processable resin used in membranes, filtration media,
water heater dip tubes and other high-temperature applications
Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), or Teflon: heat-resistant, low-friction coatings used in non-stick
surfaces for frying pans, plumber's tape and water slides
Polyamide-imide (PAI): High-performance engineering plastic extensively used in high
performance gears, switches, transmission and other automotive components, and aerospace
parts.[29]
Gallery
Water bottles made of PET
Water bottles made of PET
High density polythene (HDPE) is used for making sturdy containers; transparent containers
may be made of PET.
High density polythene (HDPE) is used for making sturdy containers; transparent containers
may be made of PET.
Disposable suits can be made from non-woven HDPE fabric.
Disposable suits can be made from non-woven HDPE fabric.
Plastic mailing envelopes made of HDPE
Plastic mailing envelopes made of HDPE
Clear plastic bags (shown) are made of low density polythene (LDPE); blown-film shopping
bags with handles are now made of HDPE.
Clear plastic bags (shown) are made of low density polythene (LDPE); blown-film shopping
bags with handles are now made of HDPE.
A Ziploc bag made of LDPE
A Ziploc bag made of LDPE
Food wrap made of LDPE

10. Food wrap made of LDPE
Metalised polypropylene film is a commonly used snack pack material.[30]
Metalised polypropylene film is a commonly used snack pack material.[30]
Kinder Joy shell made of polypropylene
Kinder Joy shell made of polypropylene
A polypropylene chair
A polypropylene chair
Stools made of HDPE
Stools made of HDPE
Expanded polystyrene foam ("Thermocol")
Expanded polystyrene foam ("Thermocol")
Extruded polystyrene foam ("Styrofoam")
Extruded polystyrene foam ("Styrofoam")
Thermocol take-away food container
Thermocol take-away food container
Egg tray made of PETE
Egg tray made of PETE
A piece of packaging foam made of LDPE
A piece of packaging foam made of LDPE
A kitchen sponge made of polyurethane foam
A kitchen sponge made of polyurethane foam
Non-stick cookware with Teflon coating
Non-stick cookware with Teflon coating
iPhone 5c, a smartphone with a polycarbonate "unibody" shell
iPhone 5c, a smartphone with a polycarbonate "unibody" shell
To withstand the extreme water pressure, this 10-meter deep Monterey Bay Aquarium tank has
windows made of acrylic glass up to 33 cm thick.
To withstand the extreme water pressure, this 10-meter deep Monterey Bay Aquarium tank has
windows made of acrylic glass up to 33 cm thick.

11. PVC pipes
PVC blister pack
PVC blister pack
Applications
The largest application for plastics is as packaging materials, but they are used in a wide range
of other sectors, including: construction (pipes, gutters, door and windows), textiles (stretchable
fabrics, fleece), consumer goods (toys, tableware, toothbrushes), transportation (headlights,
bumpers, body panels, wing mirrors), electronics (phones, computers, televisions) and as
machine parts.[23]
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Additives
Additives are chemicals blended into plastics to change their performance or appearance,
making it possible to alter the properties of plastics to better suit their intended
applications.[31][32] Additives are therefore one of the reasons why plastic is used so
widely.[33] Plastics are composed of chains of polymers. Many different chemicals are used as
plastic additives. A randomly chosen plastic product generally contains around 20 additives. The
identities and concentrations of additives are generally not listed on products.[2]
In the EU, over 400 additives are used in high volumes.[34][2] 5500 additives were found in a
global market analysis.[35] At a minimum all plastic contains some polymer stabilisers which
permit them to be melt-processed (moulded) without suffering polymer degradation. Other
additives are optional and can be added as required, with loadings varying significantly between
applications. The amount of additives contained in plastics varies depending on the additives’
function. For example, additives in polyvinyl chloride (PVC) can constitute up to 80% of the total
volume.[2] Pure unadulterated plastic (barefoot resin) is never sold, even by the primary
producers.
Leaching
Additives may be weakly bound to the polymers or react in the polymer matrix. Although
additives are blended into plastic they remain chemically distinct from it, and can gradually leach
back out during normal use, when in landfills, or following improper disposal in the
environment.[36] Additives may also degrade to form other toxic molecules. Plastic
fragmentation into microplastics and nanoplastics can allow chemical additives to move in the
environment far from the point of use. Once released, some additives and derivatives may
persist in the environment and bioaccumulate in organisms. They can have adverse effects on
human health and biota. A recent review by the United States Environmental Protection Agency
(US EPA) revealed that out of 3,377 chemicals potentially associated with plastic packaging and
906 likely associated with it, 68 were ranked by ECHA as "highest for human health hazards"
and 68 as "highest for environmental hazards".[2]
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12. Recycling
Main article: Plastic recycling
As additives change the properties of plastics they have to be considered during recycling.
Presently, almost all recycling is performed by simply remelting and reforming used plastic into
new items. Additives present risks in recycled products, as they are difficult to remove. When
plastic products are recycled, it is highly likely that the additives will be integrated into the new
products. Waste plastic, even if it is all of the same polymer type, will contain varying types and
amounts of additives. Mixing these together can give a material with inconsistent properties,
which can be unappealing to industry. For example, mixing different coloured plastics with
different plastic colorants together can produce a discoloured or brown material and for this
reason plastic is usually sorted by both polymer type and color before recycling.[2]
Absence of transparency and reporting across the value chain often results in lack of knowledge
concerning the chemical profile of the final products. For example, products containing
brominated flame retardants have been incorporated into new plastic products. Flame
retardants are a group of chemicals used in electronic and electrical equipment, textiles,
furniture and construction materials which should not be present in food packaging or child care
products. A recent study found brominated dioxins as unintentional contaminants in toys made
from recycled plastic electronic waste that contained brominated flame retardants. Brominated
dioxins have been found to exhibit toxicity similar to that of chlorinated dioxins. They can have
negative developmental effects and negative effects on the nervous system and interfere with
mechanisms of the endocrine system.[2]
Health effects
Many of the controversies associated with plastics actually relate to their additives, as some
compounds can be persistent, bioaccumulating and potentially harmful.[37][38][31] The now
banned flame retardants OctaBDE and PentaBDE are an example of this, while the health
effects of phthalates are an ongoing area of public concern. Additives can also be problematic if
waste is burned, especially when burning is uncontrolled or takes place in low- technology
incinerators, as is common in many developing countries. Incomplete combustion can cause
emissions of hazardous substances such as acid gases and ash which can contain persistent
organic pollutants (POPs) such as dioxins.[2]
A number of additives identified as hazardous to humans and/or the environment are regulated
internationally. The Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) is a global
treaty to protect human health and the environment from chemicals that remain intact in the
environment for long periods, become widely distributed geographically, accumulate in the fatty
tissue of humans and wildlife, and have harmful impacts on human health or on the
environment.[2]
Other additives proven to be harmful such as cadmium, chromium, lead and mercury (regulated
under the Minamata Convention on Mercury), which have previously been used in plastic
production, are banned in many jurisdictions. However they are still routinely found in some

13. plastic packaging including food packaging. The use of the additive bisphenol A (BPA) in plastic
baby bottles is banned in many parts of the world, but is not restricted in some low-income
countries.[2]
In 2023, plasticosis, a new disease caused solely by plastics, was discovered in seabirds. The
birds identified as having the disease have scarred digestive tracts from ingesting plastic
waste.[39] ”When birds ingest small pieces of plastic, they found, it inflames the digestive tract.
Over time, the persistent inflammation causes tissues to become scarred and disfigured,
affecting digestion, growth and survival.”[40]
Types of additive
Additive type Typical concentration when present (%)[31] Description Example compounds
Comment Share of global additive production (by weight)[23]
Plasticizers 10–70 Plastics can be brittle, adding some plasticizer makes them more durable,
adding lots makes them flexible Phthalates are the dominant class, safer alternatives
include adipate esters (DEHA, DOA) and citrate esters (ATBC and TEC) 80–90% of world
production is used in PVC, much of the rest is used in cellulose acetate. For most products
loadings are between 10 and 35%, high loadings are used for plastisols 34%
Flame retardants 1–30 Being petrochemicals, most plastics burn readily, flame retardants
can prevent this Brominated flame retardants, chlorinated paraffins Non-chlorinated
organophosphates are ecologically safer, though often less efficient 13%
Heat stabilizers 0.3-5 Prevents heat related degradation Traditionally derivatives of
lead, cadmium & tin. Safer modern alternatives include barium/zinc mixtures and calcium
stearate, along with various synergists Almost exclusively used in PVC. 5%
Fillers 0–50 Bulking agents. Can change appearance and mechanical properties, can lower
price Calcium carbonate "chalk", talc, glass beads, carbon black. Also reinforcing fillers like
carbon-fiber Most opaque plastic contains fillers. High levels can also protect against UV rays.
28%
Impact modifiers 10–40 Improved toughness and resistance to damage[41] Typically
some other elastomeric polymer, e.g. rubbers, styrene copolymers Chlorinated polyethylene is
used for PVC 5%
Antioxidants 0.05–3 Protects against degradation during processing Phenols, phosphite
esters, certain thioethers The most widely used type of additives, all plastics will contain
polymer stabilisers of some sort 6%
Colorants 0.001-10 Imparts colour Numerous dyes or pigments 2%
Lubricants 0.1-3 Assist in forming/molding the plastic, includes processing aids (or flow
aids), release agents, slip additives Hazardous PFASs. Paraffin wax, wax esters, metal
stearates (i.e. zinc stearate), long-chain fatty acid amides (oleamide, erucamide) Very common.
All examples form a coating between the plastic and machine parts during production. Reduces
pressure and power usage in the extruder. Reduces imperfections.2%
Light stabilizers 0.05–3 Protects against UV damage HALS, UV blockers and quenchers
Normally only used for items intended for outdoor use 1%
Other Various Antimicrobials, antistatics, blowing agents, nucleating agents,
clarifying agents 4%

14. Toxicity
Pure plastics have low toxicity due to their insolubility in water, and because they have a large
molecular weight, they are biochemically inert. Plastic products contain a variety of additives,
however, some of which can be toxic.[42] For example, plasticizers like adipates and phthalates
are often added to brittle plastics like PVC to make them pliable enough for use in food
packaging, toys, and many other items. Traces of these compounds can leach out of the
product. Owing to concerns over the effects of such leachates, the EU has restricted the use of
DEHP (di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate) and other phthalates in some applications, and the US has
limited the use of DEHP, DPB, BBP, DINP, DIDP, and DnOP in children's toys and child-care
articles through the Consumer Product Safety Improvement Act. Some compounds leaching
from polystyrene food containers have been proposed to interfere with hormone functions and
are suspected human carcinogens (cancer-causing substances).[43] Other chemicals of
potential concern include alkylphenols.[38]
While a finished plastic may be non-toxic, the monomers used in the manufacture of its parent
polymers may be toxic. In some cases, small amounts of those chemicals can remain trapped in
the product unless suitable processing is employed. For example, the World Health
Organization's International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) has recognized vinyl
chloride, the precursor to PVC, as a human carcinogen.[43]
Bisphenol A (BPA)
See also: Health effects of Bisphenol A
Some plastic products degrade to chemicals with estrogenic activity.[44] The primary building
block of polycarbonates, bisphenol A (BPA), is an estrogen-like endocrine disruptor that may
leach into food.[43] Research in Environmental Health Perspectives finds that BPA leached from
the lining of tin cans, dental sealants and polycarbonate bottles can increase the body weight of
lab animals' offspring.[45] A more recent animal study suggests that even low-level exposure to
BPA results in insulin resistance, which can lead to inflammation and heart disease.[46] As of
January 2010, the Los Angeles Times reported that the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA)
is spending $30 million to investigate indications of BPA's link to cancer.[47] Bis(2-ethylhexyl)
adipate, present in plastic wrap based on PVC, is also of concern, as are the volatile organic
compounds present in new car smell. The EU has a permanent ban on the use of phthalates in
toys. In 2009, the US government banned certain types of phthalates commonly used in
plastic.[48]
Environmental effects
A communication campaign infographic showing that there will be more plastic in the oceans
than fish by 2050
See also: Plastic pollution, Marine debris, and Great Pacific garbage patch
Because the chemical structure of most plastics renders them durable, they are resistant to
many natural degradation processes. Much of this material may persist for centuries or longer,
given the demonstrated persistence of structurally similar natural materials such as amber.

15. There are differing estimates of how much plastic waste has been produced in the last century.
By one estimate, one billion tons of plastic waste have been discarded since the 1950s.[49]
Others estimate a cumulative human production of 8.3 billion tons of plastic, of which 6.3 billion
tons is waste, with only 9% getting recycled.[50]
It is estimated that this waste is made up of 81% polymer resin, 13% polymer fibres and 32%
additives. In 2018 more than 343 million tonnes of plastic waste were generated, 90% of which
was composed of post-consumer plastic waste (industrial, agricultural, commercial and
municipal plastic waste). The rest was pre-consumer waste from resin production and
manufacturing of plastic products (e.g. materials rejected due to unsuitable colour, hardness, or
processing characteristics).[2]
The Ocean Conservancy reported that China, Indonesia, Philippines, Thailand, and Vietnam
dump more plastic into the sea than all other countries combined.[51] The rivers Yangtze, Indus,
Yellow, Hai, Nile, Ganges, Pearl, Amur, Niger, and Mekong "transport 88% to 95% of the global
[plastics] load into the sea."[52][53][verify quote punctuation]
The presence of plastics, particularly microplastics, within the food chain is increasing. In the
1960s microplastics were observed in the guts of seabirds, and since then have been found in
increasing concentrations.[54] The long-term effects of plastics in the food chain are poorly
understood. In 2009 it was estimated that 10% of modern waste was plastic,[55] although
estimates vary according to region.[54] Meanwhile, 50% to 80% of debris in marine areas is
plastic.[54] Plastic is often used in agriculture. There is more plastic in the soil than in the
oceans. The presence of plastic in the environment hurts ecosystems and human health.[56]
Research on the environmental impacts has typically focused on the disposal phase. However,
the production of plastics is also responsible for substantial environmental, health and
socioeconomic impacts.[57]
Prior to the Montreal Protocol, CFCs had been commonly used in the manufacture of the plastic
polystyrene, the production of which had contributed to depletion of the ozone layer.
Efforts to minimize environmental impact of plastics may include lowering of plastics production
and use, waste- and recycling-policies, and the proactive development and deployment of
alternatives to plastics such as for sustainable packaging.
Microplastics
This section is an excerpt from Microplastics.[edit]
Microplastics in sediments from four rivers in Germany. Note the diverse shapes indicated by
white arrowheads. (The white bars represent 1 mm for scale.)
Duration: 13 seconds.0:13
Photodegraded Plastic Straw. A light touch breaks larger straw into microplastics.

16. Microplastics are fragments of any type of plastic less than 5 mm (0.20 in) in length,[58]
according to the U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)[59][60] and the
European Chemicals Agency.[61] They cause pollution by entering natural ecosystems from a
variety of sources, including cosmetics, clothing, food packaging, and industrial
processes.[58][62]
The term macroplastics is used to differentiate microplastics from larger plastic waste, such as
plastic bottles or bigger pieces of plastics. Two classifications of microplastics are currently
recognized. Primary microplastics include any plastic fragments or particles that are already 5.0
mm in size or less before entering the environment.[62] These include microfibers from clothing,
microbeads, plastic glitter[63] and plastic pellets (also known as nurdles).[64][65][66] Secondary
microplastics arise from the degradation (breakdown) of larger plastic products through natural
weathering processes after entering the environment.[62] Such sources of secondary
microplastics include water and soda bottles, fishing nets, plastic bags, microwave containers,
tea bags and tire wear.[67][66][68][69] Both types are recognized to persist in the environment
at high levels, particularly in aquatic and marine ecosystems, where they cause water
pollution.[70] 35% of all ocean microplastics come from textiles/clothing, primarily due to the
erosion of polyester, acrylic, or nylon-based clothing, often during the washing process.[71]
However, microplastics also accumulate in the air and terrestrial ecosystems.
Because plastics degrade slowly (often over hundreds to thousands of years),[72][73]
microplastics have a high probability of ingestion, incorporation into, and accumulation in the
bodies and tissues of many organisms.[58] The toxic chemicals that come from both the ocean
and runoff can also biomagnify up the food chain.[74][75] In terrestrial ecosystems,
microplastics have been demonstrated to reduce the viability of soil ecosystems and reduce
weight of earthworms.[76][77] The cycle and movement of microplastics in the environment are
not fully known, but research is currently underway to investigate the phenomenon.[62] Deep
layer ocean sediment surveys in China (2020) show the presence of plastics in deposition
layers far older than the invention of plastics, leading to suspected underestimation of
microplastics in surface sample ocean surveys.[78] Microplastics have also been found in the
high mountains, at great distances from their source.[79]
Microplastics have also been found in human blood, though their effects are largely
unknown.[80][81]
Decomposition of plastics
Main article: Polymer degradation
Plastics degrade by a variety of processes, the most significant of which is usually
photo-oxidation. Their chemical structure determines their fate. Polymers' marine degradation
takes much longer as a result of the saline environment and cooling effect of the sea,
contributing to the persistence of plastic debris in certain environments.[54] Recent studies have
shown, however, that plastics in the ocean decompose faster than had been previously thought,
due to exposure to the sun, rain, and other environmental conditions, resulting in the release of
toxic chemicals such as bisphenol A. However, due to the increased volume of plastics in the
ocean, decomposition has slowed down.[82] The Marine Conservancy has predicted the

17. decomposition rates of several plastic products: It is estimated that a foam plastic cup will take
50 years, a plastic beverage holder will take 400 years, a disposable diaper will take 450 years,
and fishing line will take 600 years to degrade.[83]
Microbial species capable of degrading plastics are known to science, some of which are
potentially useful for disposal of certain classes of plastic waste.
In 1975, a team of Japanese scientists studying ponds containing waste water from a nylon
factory discovered a strain of Flavobacterium that digests certain byproducts of nylon 6
manufacture, such as the linear dimer of 6-aminohexanoate.[84] Nylon 4 (polybutyrolactam) can
be degraded by the ND-10 and ND-11 strands of Pseudomonas sp. found in sludge, resulting in
GABA (γ-aminobutyric acid) as a byproduct.[85]
Several species of soil fungi can consume polyurethane,[86] including two species of the
Ecuadorian fungus Pestalotiopsis. They can consume polyurethane both aerobically and
anaerobically (such as at the bottom of landfills).[87]
Methanogenic microbial consortia degrade styrene, using it as a carbon source.[88]
Pseudomonas putida can convert styrene oil into various biodegradable plastic|biodegradable
polyhydroxyalkanoates.[89][90]
Microbial communities isolated from soil samples mixed with starch have been shown to be
capable of degrading polypropylene.[91]
The fungus Aspergillus fumigatus effectively degrades plasticized PVC.[92]:45–46
Phanerochaete chrysosporium has been grown on PVC in a mineral salt agar.[92]:76</ref> P.
chrysosporium, Lentinus tigrinus, A. niger, and A. sydowii can also effectively degrade
PVC.[92]:122
Phenol-formaldehyde, commonly known as Bakelite, is degraded by the white rot fungus P.
chrysosporium.[93]
Acinetobacter has been found to partially degrade low-molecular-weight polyethylene
oligomers.[85] When used in combination, Pseudomonas fluorescens and Sphingomonas can
degrade over 40% of the weight of plastic bags in less than three months.[94] The thermophilic
bacterium Brevibacillus borstelensis (strain 707) was isolated from a soil sample and found
capable of using low-density polyethylene as a sole carbon source when incubated at 50 °C.
Pre-exposure of the plastic to ultraviolet radiation broke chemical bonds and aided
biodegradation; the longer the period of UV exposure, the greater the promotion of the
degradation.[95]
Hazardous molds have been found aboard space stations that degrade rubber into a digestible
form.[96]
Several species of yeasts, bacteria, algae and lichens have been found growing on synthetic
polymer artifacts in museums and at archaeological sites.[97]
In the plastic-polluted waters of the Sargasso Sea, bacteria have been found that consume
various types of plastic; however, it is unknown to what extent these bacteria effectively clean up
poisons rather than simply release them into the marine microbial ecosystem.
Plastic-eating microbes also have been found in landfills.[98]
Nocardia can degrade PET with an esterase enzyme.[99]

18. The fungus Geotrichum candidum, found in Belize, has been found to consume the
polycarbonate plastic found in CDs.[100][101]
Futuro houses are made of fiberglass-reinforced polyesters, polyester-polyurethane, and
PMMA. One such house was found to be harmfully degraded by Cyanobacteria and
Archaea.[102][103]
Manual material triage for recycling
Recycling
This section is an excerpt from Plastic recycling.[edit]
Plastic recycling
Clockwise from top left:
Sorting plastic waste at a single-stream recycling centre
Baled colour-sorted used bottles
Recovered HDPE ready for recycling
A watering can made from recycled bottles
Plastic recycling is the processing of plastic waste into other products.[104][105][106] Recycling
can reduce dependence on landfill, conserve resources and protect the environment from
plastic pollution and greenhouse gas emissions.[107][108] Recycling rates lag those of other
recoverable materials, such as aluminium, glass and paper. Through 2015, the world produced
some 6.3 billion tonnes of plastic waste, only 9% of which has been recycled, and only ~1% has
been recycled more than once.[109] Additionally, 12% was incinerated and the remaining 79%
sent to landfill or to the environment including the ocean.[109]
Almost all plastic is not biodegradable and absent recycling, spreads across the
environment[110][111] where it can cause harm. For example, as of 2015 approximately 8
million tons of waste plastic enter the oceans annually, damaging the ecosystem and forming
ocean garbage patches.[112] Even the highest quality recycling processes lead to substantial
plastic waste during the sorting and cleaning process, releasing large amounts of microplastics
in waste water, and dust from the process.[113][114]
Almost all recycling is mechanical: melting and reforming plastic into other items. This can
cause polymer degradation at a molecular level, and requires that waste be sorted by colour
and polymer type before processing, which is complicated and expensive. Errors can lead to
material with inconsistent properties, rendering it unappealing to industry.[115] In feedstock
recycling, waste plastic is converted into its starting chemicals, which can then become fresh
plastic. This involves higher energy and capital costs. Alternatively, plastic can be burned in
place of fossil fuels, in energy recovery facilities or biochemically converted into other useful
chemicals for industry. In some countries, burning is the dominant form of plastic waste
disposal, particularly where landfill diversion policies are in place.

19. Plastic recycling is low in the waste hierarchy. It has been advocated since the early 1970s,[116]
but due to economic and technical challenges, did not impact plastic waste to any significant
extent until the late 1980s. The plastics industry has been criticised for lobbying for expansion of
recycling programs, even while research showed that most plastic could not be economically
recycled.[117][118]
Pyrolysis
By heating to above 500 °C in the absence of oxygen (pyrolysis), plastics can be broken down
into simpler hydrocarbons. These can be reused as starting materials for new plastics.[119]
They can also be used as fuels.[120]
Climate change
According to the OECD, plastic contributed greenhouse gases in the equivalent of 1.8 billion
tons of carbon dioxide (CO2) to the atmosphere in 2019, 3.4% of global emissions.[121] They
say that by 2060, plastic could emit 4.3 billion tons of greenhouse gas emissions a year.
The effect of plastics on global warming is mixed. Plastics are generally made from petroleum,
thus the production of plastics creates further emissions. However, due to the lightness and
durability of plastic versus glass or metal, plastic may lower energy consumption. For example,
packaging beverages in PET plastic rather than glass or metal is estimated to save 52% in
transportation energy.[4]
Production of plastics
Production of plastics from crude oil requires 7.9 to 13.7 kWh/lb (taking into account the
average efficiency of US utility stations of 35%). Producing silicon and semiconductors for
modern electronic equipment is even more energy consuming: 29.2 to 29.8 kWh/lb for silicon,
and about 381 kWh/lb for semiconductors.[122] This is much higher than the energy needed to
produce many other materials. For example, to produce iron (from iron ore) requires 2.5-3.2
kWh/lb of energy; glass (from sand, etc.) 2.3–4.4 kWh/lb; steel (from iron) 2.5–6.4 kWh/lb; and
paper (from timber) 3.2–6.4 kWh/lb.[123]
Incineration of plastics
Quickly burning plastics at very high temperatures breaks down many toxic components, such
as dioxins and furans. This approach is widely used in municipal solid waste incineration.
Municipal solid waste incinerators also normally treat the flue gas to decrease pollutants further,
which is needed because uncontrolled incineration of plastic produces carcinogenic
polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins.[124] Open-air burning of plastic occurs at lower temperatures
and normally releases such toxic fumes.
In the European Union, municipal waste incineration is regulated by the Industrial Emissions
Directive,[125] which stipulates a minimum temperature of 850 °C for at least two seconds.[126]
History
See also: Timeline of plastic development

20. The development of plastics has evolved from the use of naturally plastic materials (e.g., gums
and shellac) to the use of the chemical modification of those materials (e.g., natural rubber,
cellulose, collagen, and milk proteins), and finally to completely synthetic plastics (e.g., bakelite,
epoxy, and PVC). Early plastics were bio-derived materials such as egg and blood proteins,
which are organic polymers. In around 1600 BC, Mesoamericans used natural rubber for balls,
bands, and figurines.[4] Treated cattle horns were used as windows for lanterns in the Middle
Ages. Materials that mimicked the properties of horns were developed by treating milk proteins
with lye. In the nineteenth century, as chemistry developed during the Industrial Revolution,
many materials were reported. The development of plastics accelerated with Charles
Goodyear's 1839 discovery of vulcanization to harden natural rubber.
Plaque commemorating Parkes at the Birmingham Science Museum
Parkesine, invented by Alexander Parkes in 1855 and patented the following year,[127] is
considered the first man-made plastic. It was manufactured from cellulose (the major
component of plant cell walls) treated with nitric acid as a solvent. The output of the process
(commonly known as cellulose nitrate or pyroxilin) could be dissolved in alcohol and hardened
into a transparent and elastic material that could be molded when heated.[128] By incorporating
pigments into the product, it could be made to resemble ivory. Parkesine was unveiled at the
1862 International Exhibition in London and garnered for Parkes the bronze medal.[129]
In 1893, French chemist Auguste Trillat discovered the means to insolubilize casein (milk
proteins) by immersion in formaldehyde, producing material marketed as galalith.[130] In 1897,
mass-printing press owner Wilhelm Krische of Hanover, Germany, was commissioned to
develop an alternative to blackboards.[130] The resultant horn-like plastic made from casein
was developed in cooperation with the Austrian chemist (Friedrich) Adolph Spitteler
(1846–1940). Although unsuitable for the intended purpose, other uses would be
discovered.[130]
The world's first fully synthetic plastic was Bakelite, invented in New York in 1907 by Leo
Baekeland,[5] who coined the term plastics.[6] Many chemists have contributed to the materials
science of plastics, including Nobel laureate Hermann Staudinger, who has been called "the
father of polymer chemistry," and Herman Mark, known as "the father of polymer physics."[7]
After World War I, improvements in chemistry led to an explosion of new forms of plastics, with
mass production beginning in the 1940s and 1950s.[55] Among the earliest examples in the
wave of new polymers were polystyrene (first produced by BASF in the 1930s)[4] and polyvinyl
chloride (first created in 1872 but commercially produced in the late 1920s).[4] In 1923, Durite
Plastics, Inc., was the first manufacturer of phenol-furfural resins.[131] In 1933, polyethylene
was discovered by Imperial Chemical Industries (ICI) researchers Reginald Gibson and Eric
Fawcett.[4]
The discovery of polyethylene terephthalate is credited to employees of the Calico Printers'
Association in the UK in 1941; it was licensed to DuPont for the US and ICI otherwise, and as

21. one of the few plastics appropriate as a replacement for glass in many circumstances, resulting
in widespread use for bottles in Europe.[4] In 1954 polypropylene was discovered by Giulio
Natta and began to be manufactured in 1957.[4] Also in 1954 expanded polystyrene (used for
building insulation, packaging, and cups) was invented by Dow Chemical.[4]