This document provides a table of contents for a document on optics. It outlines topics like Maxwell's equations, electromagnetic wave equations, geometrical optics, diffraction, and more. Key figures in the development of these topics are also mentioned, such as Maxwell, Helmholtz, Kirchhoff, and Fresnel. The document derives equations like the scalar Helmholtz differential equation and provides an overview of Fresnel-Kirchhoff diffraction theory.
2. 2
Table of Content
SOLO OPTICS
Maxwell’s Equations
Boundary Conditions
Electromagnatic Wave Equations
Monochromatic Planar Wave Equations
Spherical Waveforms
Cylindrical Waveforms
Energy and Momentum
Electrical Dipole (Hertzian Dipole) Radiation
Reflections and Refractions Laws Development
Using the Electromagnetic Approach
IR Radiometric Quantities
Physical Laws of Radiometry
Geometrical Optics
Foundation of Geometrical Optics – Derivation of Eikonal Equation
The Light Rays and the Intensity Law of Geometrical Optics
The Three Laws of Geometrical Optics
Fermat’s Principle (1657)
O
P
T
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C
S
P
a
r
t
I
3. 3
Table of Content (continue)
SOLO OPTICS
Plane-Parallel Plate
Prisms
Lens Definitions
Derivation of Gaussian Formula for a Single Spherical Surface Lens
Using Fermat’s Principle
Derivation of Gaussian Formula for a Single Spherical Surface Lens
Using Snell’s Law
Derivation of Lens Makers’ Formula
First Order, Paraxial or Gaussian Optics
Ray Tracing
Matrix Formulation
O
P
T
I
C
S
P
a
r
t
I
4. 4
Table of Content (continue)
SOLO OPTICS
Optical Diffraction
Fresnel – Huygens’ Diffraction Theory
Complementary Apertures. Babinet Principle
Rayleigh-Sommerfeld Diffraction Formula
Extensions of Fresnel-Kirchhoff Diffraction Theory
Phase Approximations – Fresnel (Near-Field) Approximation
Phase Approximations – Fraunhofer (Near-Field) Approximation
Fresnel and Fraunhofer Diffraction Approximations
Fraunhofer Diffraction and the Fourier Transform
Fraunhofer Diffraction Approximations Examples
Resolution of Optical Systems
Optical Transfer Function (OTF)
Point Spread Function (PSF)
Modulation Transfer Function (MTF)
Phase Transfer Function (PTF)
Relations between Wave Aberration, Point Spread Function
and Modulation Transfer Function
Other Metrics that define Image Quality – Srahl Ratio
Other Metrics that define Image Quality - Pickering Scale
Other Metrics that define Image Quality – Atmospheric Turbulence
Fresnel Diffraction Approximations Examples
6. 6
Optical DiffractionSOLO
Augustin Jean
Fresnel
1788-1827
In 1818 Fresnel, by using Huygens’ concept of secondary wavelets
and Young’s explanation of interface, developed the diffraction theory
of scalar waves.
P
0P
Q 1x
0x
1y
0y
Fr
Sr
r
O
'
Screen
Image
plane
Source
plane
0O
1O
Sn1
- Screen Aperture
Sn1 - normal to Screen
FrPP
0
SrQP
0
rQP
From a source P0 at a distance from a aperture a spherical wavelet
propagates toward the aperture: Srktj
S
source
Q e
r
A
tU
'
'
According to Huygens Principle second wavelets will start at the aperture and will add
at the image point P.
dre
rr
A
Kdre
r
U
KtU rrktj
S
sourcerkttjQ
P
S 2/2/'
',',
where: ',K obliquity or inclination factor SSS nrnr 11cos&11cos' 11
0',0
max0',0
K
K Obliquity factor and π/2 phase were introduced by Fresnel to explain
experiences results.
Fresnel Diffraction Formula
Fresnel took in consideration the phase of each wavelet to obtain:
Fresnel – Huygens’ Diffraction Theory
Fresnel –Kirchoff
Diffraction Formula
See full development in P.P.
“Diffraction”
Table of Content
7. 7
SOLO
Fresnel-Kirchhoff Diffraction Theory
In 1882 Gustav Kirchhoff, using mathematical foundation,
succeeded to show that the amplitude and phases ascribed to the
wavelets by Fresnel, by enhancing the Huyghen’s Principle, were a
consequence of the wave nature of light.
HBED
&
For an Homogeneous, Linear and Isotropic Medium where
are constant scalars, we have
,
t
E
t
D
H
t
t
H
t
B
E
ED
HB
Since we have also
tt
t
D
H
t
B
E
For Source less
Medium
0&
0
2
2
2
DED
EEE
t
E
E
02
2
2
t
E
E
Maxwell Equations are eJ
t
D
HA
mBGM
)(
mJ
t
B
EF
eDGE
James C.
Maxwell
(1831-1879)
Gustav Robert Kirchhoff
1824-1887
Optical Diffraction
8. 8
SOLO
Fresnel-Kirchhoff Diffraction Theory
0
1
2
2
2
2
U
tv
Scalar Differential Wave Equation
For a monochromatic wave of frequency f ( ω = 2πf ) a solution is:
tjPjPUPtPUtPU expexpRecos,
Define the phasor PjPUPU exp
U
v
U
tv 2
2
2
2
2
1
2
2
v
f
v
k
022
UkPhasor Scalar Differential Wave Equation
This is the Scalar Helmholtz Differential Equation
Hermann von Helmholtz
1821-1894
Boundary Conditions for the Helmholtz Differential Equation:
• Dirichlet (U given on the boundary)
• Neumann (dU/dn given on the boundary)
Johann Peter Gustav
Lejeune Dirichlet
1805-1859
Franz Neumann
1798-1895
1
0
11 2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
vE
tvt
E
v
E
Vector Differential Wave Equation
Optical Diffraction
9. 9
To find the solution of the Scalar Helmholtz Differential Equation we need to use the
following:
• Scalar Green’s Identity
SV
dSGUUGdVGUUG 22
• Green’s Function
SF
SF
FS
rr
rrkj
rrG
exp
;
This Green’s Function is a particular solution of the following Helmholtz
Non-homogeneous Differential Equation:
SFFSFSS rrrrGkrrG
4;; 22
SOLO
Fresnel-Kirchhoff Diffraction Theory
provided that and are
continuous in volume V
UUU 2
,, GGG 2
,,
Free-Space Green’s Function
n
i
iSS
1
iS
nS
dV
dSnS
1
V
Fr
Sr
F
0r SF rrr
PositionSourcerS
PositionFieldrF
022
Uk Scalar Helmholtz Differential Equation
Optical Diffraction
10. 10
SOLO
• Scalar Green’s Identities
SV
dSGUUGdVGUUG 22
Let start from the Gauss’ Divergence
Theorem
SV
dSAdVA
Karl Friederich Gauss
1777-1855
where is any vector field (function of position and time)
continuous and differentiable in the volume V bounded by the
enclosed surface S. Let define .
A
UGA
UGUGUGA 2
Then
S
Gauss
VV
dSUGdVUGUGdVUG 2
S
Gauss
VV
dSGUdVGUUGdVGU 2
Subtracting the second equation from the first we obtain
First Green’s Identity
Second Green’s Identity
We have
GEORGE GREEN
1793-1841
Fresnel-Kirchhoff Diffraction Theory
To find a general solution of the Scalar Helmoltz Differential
Equation we need to use the
n
i
iSS
1
iS
nS
dV
dSn
1
V
Fr
Sr
F
0r SF rrr
If we interchange with we obtainG U
Optical Diffraction
11. 11
Integral Theorem of Helmholtz and Kirchhoff
F
V
sF
V
SS rUdVUrrUGkUGkdVGUUG
442222
Using:
SFFSFSS rrrrGkrrG
4;; 22
n
i
iSS
1
iS
nS
dV
dSnS
1
V
Fr
Sr
F
0r SF rrr
PositionSourcerS
PositionFieldrF
SOLO
Fresnel-Kirchhoff Diffraction Theory
0,22
SFS rrUk
From the left side of the Second Scalar Green’s Identity we have:
SS
SS dS
n
G
U
n
U
GdSGUUG
SF
SF
FS
rr
rrkj
rrG
exp
;Using:
we obtain:
S SF
SF
SF
SF
F dS
rr
rrkj
n
U
n
U
rr
rrkj
rU
expexp
4
1
This is the Integral Theorem of Helmholtz and Kirchhoff that enables to calculate
as function of the values of and on the enclosed surface S.nU /UU
Note: This Theorem was developed first by H. von Helmholtz in acoustics.
Hermann von Helmholtz
1821-1894
Gustav Robert Kirchhoff
1824-1887
From the right side of the Second Scalar Green’s
Identity, using we have:dS
n
U
dSnUdSU SSS
1
Scalar Helmholtz Differential Equation
Optical Diffraction
12. 12
Sommerfeld Radiation Conditions
SOLO
Fresnel-Kirchhoff Diffraction Theory
SS
S
F
dS
n
G
U
n
U
G
dS
n
G
U
n
U
GrU
1
4
1
4
1
P
Fr
Sr
r
1S
S
R
Screen
Aperture
d
Sn1
Sn1
since the condition that the previous integral be finite is:
R
Rkj
rrG
SFS
exp
;
Consider the surface of integration SSS 1
1S - on the screen
S - hemisphere with radius R
Gkj
R
Rkj
R
kj
n
G
exp1
dRUkj
n
U
GdS
n
G
U
n
U
G
S
2
1
exp
limlim
R
Rkj
RGR
RR
0lim
Ukj
n
U
R
R
This is Sommerfeld Radiation Conditions
- on the aperture
Optical Diffraction
13. 13
is known as optical disturbance. Being a scalar quantity, it cannot accurately
represent an electromagnetic field. However, the square of this scalar quantity can
be regarded as a measure of the irradiance at a given point.
U
Sommerfeld Radiation Conditions (continue)
SOLO
Fresnel-Kirchhoff Diffraction Theory
SS
S
F
dS
n
G
U
n
U
G
dS
n
G
U
n
U
GrU
1
4
1
4
1
0lim
Ukj
n
U
R
R
This is Sommerfeld Radiation Conditions
This implies that: 0
4
1
S
dS
n
G
U
n
U
G
and the Integral of Helmholtz and Kirchhoff becomes:
1
4
1
S
F dS
n
G
U
n
U
GrU
P
Fr
Sr
r
1S
S
R
Screen
Aperture
d
Sn1
Sn1
0P
Q
Arnold Johannes
Wilhelm
Sommerfeld
1868 - 1951
Optical Diffraction
14. 14
The Kirchhoff Boundary Conditions
SOLO
Fresnel-Kirchhoff Diffraction Theory
Kirchhoff assumed the following boundary conditions:
dS
n
G
U
n
U
GrU F
4
1
1. The field distribution and its derivative ,
across the aperture , are the same as in the
absence of the screen.
U nU /
2. On the shadowed part of the screen and0
1
S
U
0/
1
S
nU
The Integral of Helmholtz and Kirchhoff becomes:
The field at point P is the superposition of the aperture values 0
U 0/
nU
Note:
Moreover, mathematically the condition implies0/&0
11
SS
nUU 0/&0
nUU
However, if the dimensions of the aperture are large relative to the
wavelength λ, the integral agrees well with the experiment.
P
Fr
Sr
r
1S
S
R
Screen
Aperture
0P 0,0
1
1
S
S n
U
U
n
U
U ,
Q
Sn1
Sn1
S
Kirchhoff boundary conditions are not physical since the presence of the screen
changes field values on the aperture and on the screen.
Optical Diffraction
15. 15
Fresnel-Kirchhoff Diffraction Formula
SOLO
Fresnel-Kirchhoff Diffraction Theory
dS
n
G
U
n
U
GrU F
4
1
The Integral of Helmholtz and Kirchhoff:
Assume that the aperture is illuminated by a single
spherical wave:
S
Ssource
S
r
rkjA
rU
exp
SS
S
Ssource
S
S
S
Ssource
SSSS
S
nr
r
rkjA
r
kj
n
r
rkjA
nrU
n
rU
11
exp1
1
exp
1
SF
SF
FS
rr
rrkj
rrG
exp
;
S
S
SF
SF
S
rrr
SFSS
FS
nr
r
rkj
r
kj
n
rr
rrkj
nrrG
n
rrG SF
11
exp1
1
exp
1,
,
P
Fr
Sr
r
1S
S
R
Screen
Aperture
0P 0,0
1
1
S
S n
U
U
n
U
U ,
Q
Sn1
Sn1
S
Optical Diffraction
16. 16
Fresnel-Kirchhoff Diffraction Formula
SOLO
Fresnel-Kirchhoff Diffraction Theory
dS
n
G
U
n
U
GrU F
4
1
The Integral of Helmholtz and Kirchhoff:
Assume that the aperture is illuminated by a single
spherical wave, and:
Srr,
SS
S
SsourceS
nr
r
rkjA
j
n
rU
11
exp2
r
rkj
rrG FS
exp
;
S
FS
nr
r
rkj
j
n
rrG
11
exp2,
Srr
k
1
,
12
dS
nrnr
rr
rrkjA
jrU
SSS
s
ssource
F
2
1111
exp
S
Ssource
S
r
rkjA
rU
exp
P
Fr
Sr
r
1S
S
R
Screen
Aperture
0P 0,0
1
1
S
S n
U
U
n
U
U ,
Q
Sn1
Sn1
S
Optical Diffraction
17. 17
Fresnel-Kirchhoff Diffraction Formula
SOLO
Fresnel-Kirchhoff Diffraction Theory
dSK
rr
rrkj
A
dS
nrnr
rr
rrkjA
jrU
S
s
s
source
SSS
s
ssource
F
,
2
exp
2
1111
exp
SSSS
S
SSS
S nrnr
nrnr
K 11cos&11cos
2
coscos
2
1111
,
1. Obliquity or Inclination Factor:
0,0&10,0 SS KK
2. Additional phase π/2
3. The amplitude is scaled by the factor 1/λ (not found in Fresnel derivation)
P
Fr
Sr
r
1S
S
R
Screen
Aperture
0P 0,0
1
1
S
S n
U
U
n
U
U ,
Q
Sn1
Sn1
S
We recovered Fresnel Diffraction Formula with:
Optical Diffraction
18. 18
Reciprocity Theorem of Helmholtz
SOLO
Fresnel-Kirchhoff Diffraction Theory
dSK
rr
rrkj
A
dS
nrnr
rr
rrkjA
jrU
S
s
s
source
SSS
s
ssource
F
,
2
exp
2
1111
exp
We can see that the Fresnel-Kirchhoff Diffraction Formula is symmetrical with respect
to r and rS, i.e. point source and observation point. Therefore we can interchange them
and obtain the same relation. This result is called Reciprocity Theorem of Helmholtz.
P
Fr
Sr
r
1S
S
R
Screen
Aperture
0P 0,0
1
1
S
S n
U
U
n
U
U ,
Q
Sn1
Sn1
S
Hermann von Helmholtz
1821-1894
Note:
This is similar to Lorentz’s Reciprocity Theorem in Electromagnetism.
Optical Diffraction
19. 19
Huygens-Fresnel Principle
SOLO
Fresnel-Kirchhoff Diffraction Theory
dSK
rr
rrkj
A
rU S
s
s
source
F
,
2
exp
The Fresnel Diffraction Formula can be rewritten as:
dS
r
rkj
QVrU F
exp
where:
s
s
S
source
r
rkj
K
A
QV
2
exp
,
The interpretation of this formula is that each point
of a wavefront can be considered as the center of a
secondary spherical wave, and those secondary spherical
waves interfere to result in the total field, is known as the
Huygens-Fresnel Principle.
P
Fr
Sr
r
1S
S
R
Screen
Aperture
0P 0,0
1
1
S
S n
U
U
n
U
U ,
Q
Sn1
Sn1
S
Table of Content
Optical Diffraction
20. 20
SOLO
Consider a diffracting aperture Σ. Suppose that the aperture
is divided into two portions Σ 1 and Σ 2 such that Σ = Σ1 + Σ2.
The two aperture Σ1 and Σ2 are said to be complementary.
Complementary Apertures. Babinet Principle
From the Fresnel Diffraction Formula:
21
dS
r
rkj
QVdS
r
rkj
QV
dS
r
rkj
QVrU F
expexp
exp
P
Fr
1Sr
1
r
2
1S
Screen
Apertures
0P
1
Q
Sn1
2Sr
2r
1
2Q
We can see that the result is the added effect of all complimentary
apertures. This is known as Babinet Principle.
The result can be very helpful when Σ is a very complicated
aperture, that can be decomposed in a few simple apertures.
Table of Content
Optical Diffraction
21. 21
SOLO
The Kirchhoff Diffraction Formula is an approximation since for zero field and
normal derivative on any finite surface the field is zero everywhere. This was pointed
out by Poincare in 1892 and by Sommerfeld in 1894.
The first rigorous solution of a diffraction problem was given by Sommerfeld in
1896 for a two-dimensional case of a planar wave incident on an infinitesimally thin,
perfectly conducting half plane. This solution is not given here.
Arnold Johannes
Wilhelm
Sommerfeld
1868 - 1951
Jules Henri Poincaré
1854-1912
Sommerfeld, A. : “Mathematische Theorie der Diffraction”,
Math. Ann., 47:317, 1896 translated in english as
“Optics, Lectures on Theoretical Physics”, vol. IV,
Academic Press Inc., New York, 1954
Rayleigh-Sommerfeld Diffraction Formula
Optical Diffraction
22. 22
SOLO
Rayleigh-Sommerfeld Diffraction Formula
Let start from the Helmholtz and Kirchhoff Integral:
P
Fr
Sr
r
1S
S
R
Screen
Aperture
0P
0,0
1
1
S
S n
U
U
n
U
U ,
Q
Sn1
Sn1
S
0'PFr'
SSSSS nnrrr 112'
1
4
1
S
F dS
n
G
U
n
U
GrU
Suppose that the Scalar Green Function is generated not only by P0 located at ,
but also by a point P’0 located symmetric relative to the screen at
SSSSS nnrrr 112'
Sr
G
SF
SF
SF
SF
SF
rr
rrkj
rr
rrkj
rrG
'
'expexp
,_
SF
SF
SF
SF
SF
rr
rrkj
rr
rrkj
rrG
'
'expexp
,
or:
We have 11 ,,
' SSFSSF rrrr
SSSFSSSF nrrnrr 1'1 11 ,,
0
1,
S
G 011
exp1
2
11
,,
_
S
S
S
nr
r
rkj
r
kj
n
G
0
1,
S
n
G 0
exp
2
1
1
,
,
S
S r
rkj
G
Optical Diffraction
23. 23
SOLO
Rayleigh-Sommerfeld Diffraction Formula
1. Start from the Helmholtz and Kirchhoff Integral:
P
Fr
Sr
r
1S
S
R
Screen
Aperture
0P
0,0
1
1
S
S n
U
U
n
U
U ,
Q
Sn1
Sn1
S
0'PFr'
SSSSS nnrrr 112'
1
4
1
S
F dS
n
G
U
n
U
GrU
SF
SF
SF
SF
SF
rr
rrkj
rr
rrkj
rrG
'
'expexp
,_
Choose
0
1,
S
G 011
exp1
2
11
,,
_
S
S
S
nr
r
rkj
r
kj
n
G
On the shadowed part of the screen and0
1
S
U 0/
1
S
nU
dSnr
r
rkj
rU
j
dS
n
G
UrU SS
k
r
kj
F 11
exp
4
1 /2
1
_
This is Rayleigh-Sommerfeld Diffraction Formula of the first kind
SF rrr
Arnold Johannes
Wilhelm
Sommerfeld
1868 - 1951
S
Ssource
S
r
rkjA
UrU
exp
John William Strutt
Lord Rayleigh
(1842-1919)
dSnr
r
rkj
r
rkjAj
rU S
S
Ssource
F 11
expexp
we obtain:
Optical Diffraction
24. 24
SOLO
Rayleigh-Sommerfeld Diffraction Formula
2. Start from the Helmholtz and Kirchhoff Integral:
P
Fr
Sr
r
1S
S
R
Screen
Aperture
0P
0,0
1
1
S
S n
U
U
n
U
U ,
Q
Sn1
Sn1
S
0'PFr'
SSSSS nnrrr 112'
1
4
1
S
F dS
n
G
U
n
U
GrU
SF
SF
SF
SF
SF
rr
rrkj
rr
rrkj
rrG
'
'expexp
,
Choose
On the shadowed part of the screen and0
1
S
U 0/
1
S
nU
SF rrr
0
1,
S
n
G 0
exp
2
1
1
,
,
S
S r
rkj
G
dS
n
U
r
rkj
dS
n
U
GrU F
exp
2
1
4
1
S
Ssource
S
r
rkjA
UrU
exp
SS
S
SsourceS
nr
r
rkjA
j
n
rU
11
exp2
dSnr
r
rkj
r
rkjAj
rU SS
S
Ssource
F 11
expexp
For
we obtain:
This is Rayleigh-Sommerfeld Diffraction Formula of the second kind
Table of Content
Optical Diffraction
25. 25
P
0P
Q 1x
0x
1y
0y
Sr'
Sr
r
O
S
Screen
Image
plane
Source
plane
0O
1O
Sn1
- Screen Aperture
Sn1 - normal to Screen
1r
0r
SSS rn cos11
cos11 rnS
z
Sn1
'r
Fr
FrPP
0
SrQP
0
rQP
SrOP '0
'1 rOO
SOLO
dS
r
rkj
r
rkjAj
rU S
S
Ssource
F
2
coscosexpexp
Start with Fresnel-Kirchhoff (or Rayleigh-Sommerfeld) Diffraction Formula
1. If the inclination factor is nearly constant over the aperture constKK S ,
Extensions of Fresnel-Kirchhoff Diffraction Theory
dS
r
rkj
r
rkjAKj
rU
S
Ssource
F
expexp
dS
r
rkj
rU
Kj
rU SF
exp
2. Replace the incident point source wavefront
with a general waveform
S
S
r
rkjexp
Sinc rU
3. Characterize the aperture by a
transfer function τ to model amplitude
or phase changes due to optic system
dS
r
rkj
rrU
j
rU SSF
exp
Table of Content
Optical Diffraction
26. 26
SOLO
Phase Approximations – Fresnel (Near-Field) Approximation
Fresnel Approximation or Near Field Approximation
can be used when aperture dimensions are
comparable to distance to source rS or image r.
dS
r
rkj
r
rkjAj
rU S
S
Ssource
F
2
coscosexpexp
Start with Fresnel-Kirchhoff Diffraction Formula
If the inclination factor is nearly constant over the aperture
constKK S ,
dS
r
rkj
rU
Kj
dS
r
rkj
r
rkjAKj
rU S
S
Ssource
F
expexpexp
P
Q 1x
1y
r
O
Screen
Image
plane
1O
Sn1
1r
z
Sn1
'r
rQP
'1 rOO
P
0P
Q 1x
0x
1y
0y
Sr'
Sr
r
O
S
Screen
Image
plane
Source
plane
0O
1O
Sn1
- Screen Aperture
Sn1 - normal to Screen
1r
0r
SSS rn cos11
cos11 rnS
z
Sn1
'r
Fr
1
''2
'
'
1''2'
'
2
2
1
2
1
2
11
2/1
2
2
1
2/1
11
0
1
2
1
r
r
k
r
r
r
r
r
rrrrrrr
rrr
x
x
'2
exp
'
'expexp
2
1
r
r
kj
r
rkj
r
rkj
2
max
2
1
2
1
'
'2
exp
'
'exp
rrk
dS
r
r
kjrU
r
rkjKj
rU SF
Augustin Jean Fresnel
1788-1827
Optical Diffraction
27. 27
SOLO
Phase Approximations – Fraunhofer (Near-Field) Approximation
Fraunhofer Approximation or Far Field Approximation
can be used when aperture dimensions are very small
comparable to distance to source rS or image r.
dS
r
rkj
r
rkjAj
rU S
S
Ssource
F
2
coscosexpexp
Start with Fresnel-Kirchhoff Diffraction Formula
If the inclination factor is nearly constant over the aperture
constKK S ,
dS
r
rkj
rU
Kj
dS
r
rkj
r
rkjAKj
rU S
S
Ssource
F
expexpexp
P
Q 1x
1y
r
O
Screen
Image
plane
1O
Sn1
1r
z
Sn1
'r
rQP
'1 rOO
P
0P
Q 1x
0x
1y
0y
Sr'
Sr
r
O
S
Screen
Image
plane
Source
plane
0O
1O
Sn1
- Screen Aperture
Sn1 - normal to Screen
1r
0r
SSS rn cos11
cos11 rnS
z
Sn1
'r
Fr
'
exp
'
'expexp 1
r
r
kj
r
rkj
r
rkj
2
max
22
1
1
'
2
'
exp
'
'exp
rr
k
dS
r
r
kjrU
r
rkjKj
rU SF
1
'2'
'
'2'
'
'
2
1''2'
'
2
22
11
2
22
11
2
11
2/1
2
2
1
2
1
2/1
11
0
1
2
1
r
rk
r
r
r
r
r
r
r
r
r
rr
rrrrrrr
rrr
x
x
Optical Diffraction
28. 28
0P
Q
0x
0y
Sr'
Sr
O
S
ScreenSource
plane
0O
Sn10r
SrQP
0
S
rOP '0
SOLO
Fresnel and Fraunhofer Diffraction Approximations
Fresnel Approximations at the Source
S
S
SS
S
S
xx
x
SS
S
S
SSS
SS
r
r
rr
r
r
rr
r
r
rrr
rr
'2
'1
'2'
'
'
''
'
21'
'2'
'
2
282
11
2/12
2
2/122
2
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
r
r
kjrkj
r
rkj
r
rkj
'2
'1
exp'1exp
'
'expexp
2
2
S
S
r
rkj
'
'exp
Srkj '1exp
S
S
r
r
kj
'2
'1
exp
2
2
Spherical wave centered at P0.
Lowest order approximation to the phase of
a spherical wavefront
Planar wave propagating in directionSr'1
P
0P
Q 1x
0x
1y
0y
Sr'
Sr
r
O
S
Screen
Image
plane
Source
plane
0O
1O
Sn1
- Screen Aperture
Sn1 - normal to Screen
1r
0r
SSS rn cos11
cos11 rnS
z
Sn1
'r
Fr
Optical Diffraction
29. 29
SOLO
Fresnel and Fraunhofer Diffraction Approximations
P
Q 1x
1y
r
O
Screen
Image
plane
1O
Sn1
1r
z
Sn1
'r
rQP
'1 rOO
''2
'
'
2
1'
'2'
'
1
22
1
2
11
2/1
2
2
1
2
1
2/1
11
0
1
2
1
r
r
r
r
r
r
rr
r
rrrrrr
rrr
x
x
'
exp
'2
exp
'2
exp
'
'expexp 1
22
1
r
r
kj
r
kj
r
r
kj
r
rkj
r
rkj
Fresnel Approximations at the Image plane
P
0P
Q 1x
0x
1y
0y
Sr'
Sr
r
O
S
Screen
Image
plane
Source
plane
0O
1O
Sn1
- Screen Aperture
Sn1 - normal to Screen
1r
0r
SSS rn cos11
cos11 rnS
z
Sn1
'r
Fr
'
'exp
r
rkj
'1exp rkj
'2
'1
exp
2
2
r
r
kj
Spherical wave centered at O.
Lowest order approximation to the phase of
a spherical wavefront
Planar wave propagating in direction'1r
Optical Diffraction
30. 30
SOLO
Fresnel and Fraunhofer Diffraction Approximations (1st way)
dS
r
rkj
r
rkjAj
rU
SK
S
S
Ssource
F
,
2
coscosexpexp
Fresnel Approximation
dS
r
rrr
r
r
kjrrkjrrkj
rr
rrkjKAj
rU
S
S
S
S
Ssource
F
'2
'1
'2
'1
exp'1'1exp'1exp
''
''exp
2
1
2
1
2
2
1
Fraunhofer Approximation
1
'2
'1
'2
'12
2
1
2
1
2
2
S
S
k
r
rrr
r
r
or S
MAX
rr ','
2
dSrrkjrrkj
rr
rrkjKAj
rU S
S
Ssource
F
'1'1exp'1exp
''
''exp
1
If
1
'2
'1
'2
'1
exp
2
1
2
1
2
2
S
S
r
rrr
r
r
kj
we obtain
Augustin Jean Fresnel
1788-1827
constKK S ,
Start with
'1'1 rrq S
P
0P
Q 1x
0x
1y
0y
Sr'
Sr
r
O
S
Screen
Image
plane
Source
plane
0O
1O
Sn1
- Screen Aperture
Sn1 - normal to Screen
1r
0r
SSS rn cos11
cos11 rnS
z
Sn1
'r
Fr
FrPP
0
SrQP
0
rQP
SrOP '0
'1 rOO
Optical Diffraction
31. 31
SOLO
Fresnel and Fraunhofer Diffraction Approximations (2nd way)
Fresnel Approximation
dS
r
rr
kjrrU
r
rkjj
rU SSF
'2
exp
'
'exp 11
Fraunhofer Approximation
'1
'2
2 max
2
1
22
1
2
r
r
r
r
k
If
we obtain
Augustin Jean Fresnel
1788-1827
Start with
dS
r
rkj
rrU
j
rU SSF
exp
- aperture optical transfer function Sr
- disturbance at the aperture SrU
dS
r
r
kjrrU
r
rkjj
rU SSF
'
exp
'
'exp 1
'
exp
'2
exp
'
'expexp 1
2
1
2
r
r
kj
r
r
kj
r
rkj
r
rkj
P
Q 1x
1y
r
O
Screen
Image
plane
1O
Sn1
1r
z
Sn1
'r
rQP
'1 rOO
1' rrr
2
11
2/1
2
11
2/1
11
0
1
2
'2
1'
'
1''2'
r
rr
r
r
rr
rrrrrrr
dS
r
r
kj
r
r
kjrrU
r
rkjj
rU SSF
'
exp
'2
exp
'
'exp 1
2
1
2
'2'
'
'
2
1''2'
22
11
2
112/1
2
2
1
2
1
2/1
11
0
1
2
r
r
r
r
r
r
rr
rrrrrrr
x
x
Optical Diffraction
32. 32
SOLO
Fresnel and Fraunhofer Diffraction Approximations
Augustin Jean Fresnel
1788-1827
1x
1y
max
D
Screen
1O
1r
z
2
D
R
Fresnel Region Fraunhofer Region
2
D
R
R
O
'1
'2
2 max
2
1
22
1
2
r
r
r
r
k
Fraunhofer Approximation
If
Optical Diffraction
33. 33
SOLO
Fraunhofer Diffraction and the Fourier Transform
dS
r
r
kjrrU
r
rkjj
rU SSF
'
exp
'
'exp 1
11
1
'
2
'
yx
rr
r
k
ddyx
r
jrrU
r
rkjj
rU SSF 11
'
2
exp
'
'exp
The integral is the two dimensional Fourier Transform
of the field within the aperture SS rrU
fFTddkkjfkkF yxyx
exp,
2
1
:, 2
SSF rrUFT
r
rkjj
rU
2
2
'
'exp
Therefore
P
0P
Q 1x
0x
1y
0y
Sr'
Sr
r
O
S
Screen
Image
plane
Source
plane
0O
1O
Sn1
- Screen Aperture
Sn1 - normal to Screen
1r
0r
SSS rn cos11
cos11 rnS
z
Sn1
'r
Fr
FrPP
0
SrQP
0
rQP
SrOP '0
'1 rOO
Two Dimensional
Fourier Transform
Optical Diffraction
34. 34
SOLO
Fraunhofer Diffraction Approximations Examples
Rectangular Aperture
P
Q 1x
1y
r
O
Screen
Image
plane
1O
Sn1
1r
z
Sn1
'r
1
2
1
2
1
1
1
1
11
0
2
11
2
10
'
2
exp
'
2
exp
'2
'exp
'
exp
'
exp
'2
exp
'
'exp
dy
r
jdx
r
j
r
rkjUkj
dd
r
y
kj
r
x
kj
r
r
kj
r
rkjUj
rU
k
F
elsevere
U
rrU SS
0
& 21110
For a Rectangular Aperture
Therefore
dS
r
r
kjrrU
r
r
kj
r
rkjj
rU SSF
'
exp
'2
exp
'
'exp 1
2
1
11
11
1
1
1111
1
'
2
'
2
sin
2
'
2
'
2
exp
'
2
exp
'
2
exp
1
1
x
r
x
r
x
r
j
x
r
jx
r
j
dx
r
j
11
11
1
1
1111
1
'
2
'
2
sin
2
'
2
'
2
exp
'
2
exp
'
2
exp
1
1
y
r
y
r
y
r
j
y
r
jy
r
j
dy
r
j
11
11
11
11
4/
11
0
'
2
'
2
sin
'
2
'
2
sin
'
'exp2
y
r
y
r
x
r
x
r
r
rkjUkj
rU
A
F
Optical Diffraction
35. 35
SOLO
Fraunhofer Diffraction Approximations Examples
Rectangular Aperture (continue – 1)
Since U stands for scalar field intensity
(E or H), the irradiance I is given by
where < > is the time average and * is
the complex conjugate.
11
11
11
11
0
'
2
'
2
sin
'
2
'
2
sin
'
'exp8
y
r
y
r
x
r
x
r
Ar
rkjUkj
rU F
FFF rUrUrI
~
Therefore
2
11
11
2
2
11
11
2
'
2
'
2
sin
'
2
'
2
sin
0
y
r
y
r
x
r
x
r
IrI F
I (0) is the irradiance at O1 (x1 = y1 = 0).
Hecht pg.466
Optical Diffraction
36. 36
SOLO
Fraunhofer Diffraction Approximations Examples
Single Slit Aperture
Let substitute in the
rectangular aperture ξ1 → 0
where < > is the time average and * is
the complex conjugate.
11
11
11
11
0
'
2
'
2
sin
'
2
'
2
sin
'
'exp8
y
r
y
r
x
r
x
r
Ar
rkjUkj
rU F
FFF rUrUrI
~
Therefore
2
11
11
2
'
2
'
2
sin
0
y
r
y
r
IrI F
I (0) is the irradiance at O1 (x1 = y1 = 0).
to obtain the single (vertical) slit diffraction
11
11
0
'
2
'
2
sin
'
'exp2
y
r
y
r
Ar
rkjUkj
rU FSLITSINGLE
Since U stands for scalar field intensity
(E or H), the irradiance I is given by
Hecht, pg. 453
Hecht, pg. 456
Optical Diffraction
37. 37
SOLO
Fraunhofer Diffraction Approximations Examples
Single Slit Aperture (continue)
2
11
11
2
'
2
'
2
sin
0
y
r
y
r
IrI F
I (0) is the irradiance at O1 (x1 = y1 = 0).
Hecht, pg. 456
Hecht 455
Define: 11
'
2
:
y
r
2
2
sin
0
II
The extremum of I (β) is obtained from:
0
sincossin2
0 3
I
d
Id
The results are given by:
minimum,3,2,0sin
maximum tan
The solutions can be obtained
graphically as shown in the figure and
are: ,4707.3,4590.2,4303.1
Optical Diffraction
38. 38
SOLO
Fraunhofer Diffraction Approximations Examples
Double Slit Aperture
d
r
x
kjd
r
x
kj
r
r
kj
r
rkjUj
rU
ba
ba
ba
ba
F
2/
2/
1
2/
2/
1
2
10
'
exp
'
exp
'2
exp
'
'exp
P
Q
1x
1y
r
O
Screen
Image
plane
1O
Sn1
1r
z
Sn1
'r
1
b
b
a
dS
r
r
kjrrU
r
r
kj
r
rkjj
rU SSF
'
exp
'2
exp
'
'exp 1
2
1
ax
r
j
bx
r
bx
r
b
x
r
j
bax
r
jbax
r
j
dx
r
j
ba
ba
1
1
1
1
112/
2/
1
'
exp
'
'
sin
1
'
2
'
exp
'
exp
'
2
exp
ax
r
j
bx
r
bx
r
b
x
r
j
bax
r
jbax
r
j
dx
r
j
ba
ba
1
1
1
1
112/
2/
1
'
exp
'
'
sin
1
'
2
'
exp
'
exp
'
2
exp
ax
r
bx
r
bx
r
br
r
kj
r
rkjUj
rU F 1
1
12
10
'
cos
'
'
sin
2
'2
exp
'
'exp
ax
r
bx
r
bx
r
IrI F 1
2
2
1
1
2
'
cos
'
'
sin
0
FFF rUrUrI
~
elsevere
babababaU
rrU SS
0
2/2/&2/2/0
Optical Diffraction
39. 39
SOLO
Fraunhofer Diffraction Approximations Examples
Double Slit Aperture (continue -= 1)
Hecht p.458
2
2
2
12
2
1
12
cos
sin
0
'
cos
'
'
sin
0 I
a
r
x
b
r
x
b
r
x
IrI F
P
Q
1x
1y
r
O
Screen
Image
plane
1O
Sn1
1r
z
Sn1
'r
1
b
b
a
The factor (sin β/ β)2 that
was previously found as the
distribution function for a
single slit is here the envelope
for the interference fringes
given by the term cos2γ.
Bright fringes occur for
γ = 0,±π ,±2π,…
The angular separation
between fringes is Δγ = π.
Optical Diffraction
41. 41
SOLO
Fraunhofer Diffraction Approximations Examples
Multiple Slit Aperture
P
1y
r
Image
plane
1O
1r
Q
O
Screen
Sn1
'r
b
b
a
a
b
b
a
b
a
The Aperture consists of a large number N of identical
parallel slits of width b and separation a.
1
0
2/
2/
1
2
10
'
exp
'2
exp
'
'exp N
k
bak
bak
F d
r
x
kj
r
r
kj
r
rkjUj
rU
dS
r
r
kjrrU
r
r
kj
r
rkjj
rU SSF
'
exp
'2
exp
'
'exp 1
2
1
akx
r
j
bx
r
bx
r
b
x
r
j
b
kax
r
j
b
kax
r
j
dx
r
j
bka
bka
1
1
1
1
112/
2/
1
'
2
exp
'
'
sin
1
'
2
2'
2
exp
2'
2
exp
'
2
exp
ax
r
aNx
r
bx
r
bx
r
br
r
kj
r
rkjUj
ax
r
j
aNx
r
j
bx
r
bx
r
br
r
kj
r
rkjUj
akx
r
j
bx
r
bx
r
br
r
kj
r
rkjUj
rU
N
k
F
1
1
1
12
10
1
1
1
12
10
1
0
1
1
12
10
'
sin
'
sin
'
'
sin
1
'2
exp
'
'exp
'
2
exp1
'
2
exp1
'
'
sin
1
'2
exp
'
'exp
'
2
exp
'
'
sin
1
'2
exp
'
'exp
elsevere
NkbkabkaU
rrU SS
0
1,,1,02/2/0
Optical Diffraction
42. 42
SOLO
Fraunhofer Diffraction Approximations Examples
Multiple Slit Aperture (continue – 1)
P
1y
r
Image
plane
1O
1r
Q
O
Screen
Sn1
'r
b
b
a
a
b
b
a
b
a
The Aperture consists of a large number N of identical
parallel slits of width b and separation a.
ax
r
aNx
r
bx
r
bx
r
br
r
kj
r
rkjUj
rU F
1
1
1
12
10
'
sin
'
sin
'
'
sin
1
'2
exp
'
'exp
22
2
2
2
1
22
1
2
2
1
1
2
sin
sinsin
0
'
sin
'
sin
'
'
sin
0
N
N
I
ax
r
N
aNx
r
bx
r
bx
r
IrI F
FFF rUrUrI
~
Optical Diffraction
43. 43
SOLO
Fraunhofer Diffraction Approximations Examples
Multiple Slit Aperture (continue – 2)
Hecht p.462
Hecht p.463
22
2
2
2
1
22
1
2
2
1
1
2
sin
sinsin
0
'
sin
'
sin
'
'
sin
0
N
N
I
ax
r
N
aNx
r
bx
r
bx
r
IrI F
Optical Diffraction
44. 44
SOLO
Fraunhofer Diffraction Approximations Examples
Multiple Slit Aperture (continue – 2)
22
2
2
2
1
22
1
2
2
1
1
2
sin
sinsin
0
'
sin
'
sin
'
'
sin
0
N
N
I
ax
r
N
aNx
r
bx
r
bx
r
IrI F
Sears p.222
Hecht p. 462
Sears p.236
Interference Irradiation
for 1, 2, 3 and 4 slits as
function of observation
angle.
Diffraction Pattern for 1,
2, 3, 4 and 5 slits.
Optical Diffraction
45. 45
SOLO
Resolution of Optical Systems
According to Huygens-Fresnel Principle, a differential area dS, within an optical
Aperture, may be envisioned as being covered with coherent secondary point sources.
z
y
Z
Y
R
q
sincos yz
sincos qYqZ
Differential area dS, coordinates
Image , coordinates
dddS
dSe
r
E
dE rktiA
The spherical wave that
propagates from dS to Image is
where
22/122/1222
/1/21 RZzYyRRZzYyRzZyYXr 2/1222
ZYXR
RkaqJkaqRe
R
E
ddee
R
E
dSee
R
E
dEE RktiA
a
RkpqiRktiA
Aperture
RzZyYkiRktiA
Aperture
// 1
0
2
0
cos//
The spherical wave at Image, for a Circular Aperture, is
Optical Diffraction
46. 46
SOLO
Resolution of Optical Systems
z
y
Z
Y
R
q
RkaqJkaqRe
R
E
E RktiA
// 1
where
2
0
cos
2
dve
i
uJ vuvmi
m
m
Bessel Function (of the first kind)
E. Hecht, “Optics”
The spherical wave at Image, for a Circular Aperture, is
Optical Diffraction
47. 47
SOLO
Resolution of Optical Systems
z
y
Z
Y
R
q
Irradiance
EEHEHESI
EH
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
22
/
/2
0
/
/22
2
1
Rkaq
RkaqJ
I
Rkaq
RkaqJ
R
aE
EEI A
Daaak
RkaquuJ n
Rq
22.1
2
22.1
2
83.383.3
sin83.3/0
sin/
11
D
nnn
44.22
E. Hecht, “Optics”
Circular Aperture
Optical Diffraction
48. 48
SOLO
Resolution of Optical Systems
z
y
Z
Y
R
qDistribution of Energy in the Diffraction Pattern
at the Focus of a Perfect Circular Lens
E. Hecht, “Optics”
Ring f/(λf#) Peak Energy in ring
Illumination (%)
Central max 0 1 83.9
1st dark ring 1.22 0
1st bright ring 1.64 0.017 7.1
2nd dark 2.24 0
2nd bright 2.66 0.0041 2.8
3rd dark 3.24 0
3rd bright 3.70 0.0016 1.5
4th dark 4.24 0
4th bright 4.74 0.00078 1.0
5th dark 5.24 0
Optical Diffraction
50. 50
SOLO
Resolution of Optical SystemsAiry Rings
In 1835, Sir George Biddell Airy, developed the formula for diffraction pattern, of
an image of a point source in an aberration-free optical system, using the wave
theory.
E. Hecht, “Optics”
Optical Diffraction
52. 52
Rayleigh’s Criterion (1902)
The images are said to be just resolved when the
center of one Airy Disk falls on the first minimum
of the Airy pattern of the other image.
The minimum resolvable angular separation or
angular limit is:
D
nnn
44.22
Sparrow’s Criterion
At the Rayleigh’s limit there is a central minimum
Or saddle point between adjacent peaks.
Decreasing the distance between the two point
sources cause the central dip to grow shallower and
ultimately to disappear. The angular separation
corresponding to that configuration is the Sparrow’s
Limit.
SOLO
Resolution of Optical Systems
Optical Diffraction
53. 53
Resolution – Diffraction Limit
Austin Roorda, “Review of Basic Principles in Optics, Wavefront and Wavefront Error”,University of California, Berkley
Optical Diffraction
54. 54
Diffraction limit to resolution of two close
point-object images: best resolution is
possible when the two are of near equal,
optimum intensity. As the two PSF merge
closer, the intensity deep between them
rapidly diminishes. At the center separation
of half the Airy disc diameter -
1.22λ/D radians (138/D in arc seconds, for
λ=0.55μ and the aperture diameter D in
mm), known as Rayleigh limit - the deep is
at nearly 3/4 of the peak intensity.
Reducing the separation to λ/D (113.4/D in
arc seconds for D in mm, or 4.466/D for D
in inches, both for λ=0.55μ) brings the
intensity deep only ~4% bellow the peak.
This is the conventional diffraction
resolution limit, nearly identical to the
empirical double star resolution limit,
known as Dawes' limit. With even slight
further reduction in the separation, the
contrast deep disappears, and the two
spurious discs merge together. The
separation at which the intensity flattens at
the top is called Sparrow's limit, given by
107/D for D in mm, and 4.2/D for D in
inches (λ=0.55μ).
Optical Diffraction
55. 55
SOLO
Fresnel Diffraction Approximations Examples
Rectangular Aperture
dS
r
rr
kjrrU
r
rkjj
rU SSF
'2
exp
'
'exp 11
define
Augustin Jean Fresnel
1788-1827
P
Q 1x
1y
r
O
Screen
Image
plane
1O
Sn1
1r
z
Sn1
'r
1
2
1
2
2
1
2
1
'
2
2
exp
'
2
2
exp
'2
'exp
'2
exp
'2
exp
'
'exp
2
1
2
10
2
2
1
2
10
d
r
y
jd
r
x
j
r
rkjUkj
dd
r
y
kj
r
x
kj
r
rkjUj
rU
k
F
elsevere
U
rrU SS
0
& 21110
For a Rectangular Aperture
d
r
d
r
x
'
2
'
2
:
2
12
2
1
2
1
2
2
1
2
exp
2
'
'
2
2
exp
dj
r
d
r
x
j
212111
'
2
&
'
2
x
r
x
r
Therefore
d
r
d
r
y
'
2
'
2
:
2
12
212111
'
2
&
'
2
y
r
y
r
2
1
2
1
2
2
1
2
exp
2
'
'
2
2
exp
dj
r
d
r
y
j
Optical Diffraction
58. 58
SOLO
Fresnel Diffraction Approximations Examples
Augustin Jean Fresnel
1788-1827
P
Q 1x
1y
r
O
Screen
Image
plane
1O
Sn1
1r
z
Sn1
'r
1
2
1
2
Optical Diffraction
59. 59
SOLO
Fresnel Diffraction Approximations Examples
Cornu Spiral
Fresnel Integrals are defined as
uu
duuuSduuuC
0
2
0
2
2
sin:&
2
cos:
uSjuCduuj
u
0
2
2
exp
5.0 SC
Marie Alfred Cornu professor at the École Polytechnique in Paris
established a graphical approach, for calculating intensities in
Fresnel diffraction integrals.
The Cornu Spiral is defined as the
plot of S (u) versus C (u)
duuSd
duuCd
2
2
2
sin
2
cos
duSdCd
22
Therefore u may be thought as measuring arc
length along the spiral.
“Méthode nouvelle pour la discussion des problèmes de diffraction dans le cas
d’une onde cylindrique”, J.Phys.3 (1874), 5-15,44-52
Optical Diffraction
60. 60
SOLO
Fresnel Diffraction Approximations Examples
Cornu Spiral (continue – 1)
uu
duuuSduuuC
0
2
0
2
2
sin:&
2
cos:
uSjuCduuj
u
0
2
2
exp
5.0 SC
The Cornu Spiral is defined as the plot of S (u) versus C (u)
duuSdduuCd
22
2
sin&
2
cos
duSdCd
22
2
2
2
2
tan
2
cos
2
sin
u
u
u
Cd
Sd
Therefore every point on the curve makes the angle
with the real ( C ) axis.
2
2
u
The radius of curvature of Cornu Spiral is
The tangent vector of Cornu Spiral is
SuCuT 1
2
sin1
2
cos 22
u
SuCuu
udTdSdCdTd
1
1
2
cos1
2
sin
1
/
1
/
1
22
22
showing that the curve spirals toward the limit points.
2
1
2
2
cos
u
u
duu
2
1
2
2
sin
u
u
duu
2
1
2
2
exp
u
u
duuj
Table of Content
Optical Diffraction
64. 64
SOLO
Fresnel Diffraction Approximations Examples
Augustin Jean Fresnel
1788-1827
Fresnel Diffraction by a Slit
Hecht p.504 a
Fresnel Diffraction
Hecht p.504 b
Optical Diffraction
68. 68
Point Spread Function (PSF)
The Point Spread Function, or PSF, is the image that an Optical System forms of
a Point Source. The PSF is the most fundamental object, and forms the basis for any
complex object. PSF is the analogous to Impulse Response Function in electronics.
2
, yxPFTPSF
The PSF for a perfect optical system (with no aberration) is the Airy disc, which is
the Fraunhofer diffraction pattern for a circular pupil.
SOLO Optics
69. 69
Point Spread Function (PSF)
As the pupil size gets larger, the Airy disc gets smaller.
SOLO Optics
70. 70
Convolution
yxIyxOyxPSF ,,,
yxIyxOFTyxPSFFTFT ,,,1
Austin Roorda, “Review of Basic Principles in Optics, Wavefront and Wavefront Error”,University of California, Berkley
SOLO Optics
71. 71
Modulation Transfer Function (MTF)
Austin Roorda, “Review of Basic Principles in Optics, Wavefront and Wavefront Error”,University of California, Berkley
SOLO Optics
72. 72
Modulation Transfer Function (MTF)
The Modulation Transfer Function (MTF) indicates the ability of an Optical System
to reproduce various levels of details (spatial frequencies) from the object to image.
Its units are the ratio of image contrast over the object contrast as a function of
spatial frequency.
3.57
a
fcutoff
Austin Roorda, “Review of Basic Principles in Optics, Wavefront and Wavefront Error”,University of California, Berkley
SOLO Optics
73. 73
Modulation Transfer Function (MTF)
Austin Roorda, “Review of Basic Principles in Optics, Wavefront and Wavefront Error”,University of California, Berkley
SOLO Optics
74. 74
Phase Transfer Function (PTF)
• PTF contains information about asymmetry in PSF
• PTF contains information about contrast reversals (spurious resolution)
Austin Roorda, “Review of Basic Principles in Optics, Wavefront and Wavefront Error”,University of California, Berkley
SOLO Optics
75. 75
Relations between Wave Aberration, Point Spread Function and Modulation Transfer Function
• The Point Spread Function (PSF) is the Fourier Transform (FT) of the pupil function
• The Modulation Transfer Function (MTF) is the amplitude component of the FT of the PSF
• The Phase Transfer Function (PTF) is the phase component of the FT of the PSF
• The Optical Transfer Function (OTF) composed of MTF and PTF can also be computed
as the autocorrelation of the pupil function.
yxWi
eyxPFTyxPSF
,
2
,,
iiyx yxPSFFTAmplitudeffMTF ,,
iiyx yxPSFFTPhaseffPTF ,,
yxyxyx ffPTFiffMTFffOTF ,exp,,
SOLO Optics
76. 76
Relations between Wave Aberration, Point Spread Function and Modulation Transfer Function
yxWi
eFTyxPSF
,
2
,
iiyx yxPSFFTAmplitudeffMTF ,, iiyx yxPSFFTPhaseffPTF ,,
Austin Roorda, “Review of Basic Principles in Optics,
Wavefront and Wavefront Error”,
University of California, Berkley
SOLO Optics
Ideal Optical System
77. 77
Relations between Wave Aberration, Point Spread Function and Modulation Transfer Function
yxWi
eFTyxPSF
,
2
,
iiyx yxPSFFTAmplitudeffMTF ,, iiyx yxPSFFTPhaseffPTF ,,
Austin Roorda, “Review of Basic Principles in Optics,
Wavefront and Wavefront Error”,
University of California, Berkley
SOLO Optics
Real Optical System
78. 78
Relations between Wave Aberration, Point Spread Function and Modulation Transfer Function
yxWi
eFTyxPSF
,
2
,
iiyx yxPSFFTAmplitudeffMTF ,, iiyx yxPSFFTPhaseffPTF ,,
Austin Roorda, “Review of Basic Principles in Optics,
Wavefront and Wavefront Error”,
University of California, Berkley
SOLO Optics
Real Optical System
79. 79
FIGURE : PSF and MTF for nominal wavefront errors of selected aberrations resulting in
~0.80 Strehl (~1/14 wave RMS), and the error doubled.
(a) the effect of 1/4 and 1/2 wave P-V
wavefront error of defocus on the
PSF intensity distribution (left)
and image contrast (right).
Doubling the error nearly halves
the peak diffraction intensity, but
the average contrast loss nearly
triples (evident from the peak PSF
intensity).
(b) 1/4 and 1/2 wave P-V of spherical
aberration. While the peak PSF
intensity change is nearly identical
to that of defocus, wider energy
spread away from the disc results in
more of an effect at mid- to high-
frequency range. Central disc at 1/2
wave P-V becomes larger, and less
well defined. The 1/2 wave curve
indicates ~20% lower actual cutoff
frequency in field conditions.
http://www.telescope-optics.net/
SOLO Optics
80. 80
FIGURE : PSF and MTF for nominal wavefront errors of selected aberrations resulting in
~0.80 Strehl (~1/14 wave RMS), and the error doubled.
(c) 0.42 and 0.84 wave P-V wavefront error of
coma. Both, intensity distribution
(PSF) and contrast transfer change
with the orientation angle, due to the
asymmetric character of aberration.
The worst effect is along the axis of
aberration (red), or length-wise with
respect to the blur (0 and π orientation
angle), and the least is in the
orientation perpendicular to it (green).
(d) 0.37 and 0.74 wave P-V of astigmatism.
Due to the tighter energy spread, there
is less of a contrast loss with larger, but
more with small details, compared to
previous wavefront errors. Contrast is
best along the axis of aberration (red),
falling to the minimum (green) at every
45° (π/4), and raising back to its peak
at every 90°. The PSF is deceiving
here: since it is for a linear angular
orientation, the energy spread is lowest
for the contrast minima.
http://www.telescope-optics.net/
SOLO Optics
81. 81
(e) Turned down edge effect on the PSF and
MTF. The P-V errors for 95% zone are
2.5 and 5 waves as needed for the initial
0.80 Strehl (the RMS is similarly out of
proportion). Lost energy is more evenly
spread out, and the central disc becomes
enlarged. Odd but expected TE property -
due to the relatively small area of the
wavefront affected - is that further
increase beyond 0.80 Strehl error level
does almost no additional damage.
f) The effect of ~1/14 and ~1/7 wave
RMS wavefront error of roughness,
resulting in the peak intensity and contrast
drop similar to those with other aberrations.
Due to the random nature of the aberration,
its nominal P-V wavefront error can vary
significantly for a given RMS error and
image quality level. Shown is the medium-
scale roughness ("primary ripple" or "dog
biscuit", in amateur mirror makers' jargon)
effect.
(g) 0.37 and 0.74 wave P-V of wavefront error
caused by pinching having the typical
3-sided symmetry (trefoil). The aberration
is radially asymmetric, with the degree of
pattern deformation varying between the
maxima (red MTF line, for the pupil angle
θ=0, 2π/3, 4π/3), and minima (green line,
for θ=π/3, π, 5π/3); (the blue line is for a
perfect aperture). Other forms do occur,
with or without some form of symmetry.
FIGURE : PSF and MTF for nominal wavefront errors of selected aberrations resulting in ~0.80 Strehl (~1/14 wave RMS), and the
error doubled.
82. 82
h) 0.7 and 1.4 wave P-V wavefront error caused
by tube currents starting at the upper
30% of the tube radius. The energy
spreads mainly in the orientation of
wavefront deformation (red PSF line, to
the left). Similarly to the TE,
further increase in the nominal error
beyond a certain level has relatively
small effect Contrast and resolution for
the orthogonal to it pattern orientation
are as good as perfect (green MTF line).
(i) Near-average PSF/MTF effect of ~1/14 and
~1/7 wave RMS wavefront error of
atmospheric turbulence. The
atmosphere caused error fluctuates
constantly, and so do image contrast and
resolution level. Larger seeing errors (1/7
wave RMS is rather common with
medium-to-large apertures) result in a
drop of contrast in the mid- and high-
frequency range to near-zero level.
FIGURE : PSF and MTF for nominal wavefront errors of selected aberrations resulting
in ~0.80 Strehl (~1/14 wave RMS), and the error doubled.
http://www.telescope-optics.net/
SOLO Optics
83. 83
Other Metrics that define Image Quality
Strehl Ratio
Strehl, Karl 1895, Aplanatische und fehlerhafte Abbildung im
Fernrohr, Zeitschrift für Instrumentenkunde 15 (Oct.), 362-370.
Dr. Karl Strehl
1864 -1940
One of the most frequently used optical terms in both,
professional and amateur circles is the Strehl ratio. It is
the simplest meaningful way of expressing the effect of
wavefront aberrations on image quality. By definition,
Strehl ratio - introduced by Dr. Karl Strehl at the end of
19th century - is the ratio of peak diffraction intensities of
an aberrated vs. perfect wavefront. The ratio indicates
image quality in presence of wavefront aberrations; often
times, it is used to define the maximum acceptable level of
wavefront aberration for general observing - so-called
diffraction-limited level - conventionally set at 0.80 Strehl.
SOLO Optics
84. 84
The Strehl ratio is the ratio of the irradiance at the center of the reference
sphere to the irradiance in the absence of aberration.
Irradiance is the square of the complex field amplitude u
0
E
E
Strehl
2
uE
dxdyyxWjUu )),(2exp(0
Other Metrics that define Image Quality
Strehl Ratio
Expectation Notation
dxdy
dxdyyxu
uu
),(
SOLO Optics
86. 86
2
0
21 W
E
E
Strehl
22
2
),(),( yxWyxWWWW
where W is the wavefront variance:
2
2 W
eStrehl
Another approximation for the Strehl ratio is
Strehl Approximation
Diffraction Limit
8.0Strehl
A system is diffraction-limited when the Strehl ratio is greater
than or equal to 0.8
Maréchal’s criterion:
This implies that the rms wavefront error is less than /13.3 or
that the total wavefront error is less than about /4.
SOLO Optics
87. 87
Other Metrics that define Image Quality
Strehl Ratio
dl
eye
H
H
RatioStrehl
Austin Roorda, “Review of Basic Principles in Optics, Wavefront and Wavefront Error”,University of California, Berkley
SOLO Optics
88. 88
Other Metrics that define Image Quality
Strehl Ratio
2m
n
Crms
when rms is small
2
2
2
1 rmsStrehl
SOLO Optics
89. 89
Other Metrics that define Image Quality
FIGURE 34: Pickering's seeing scale uses 10 levels to categorize seeing quality, with the level 1 being
the worst and level 10 near-perfect. Its seeing description corresponding to the numerical
seeing levels are: 1-2 "very poor", 3 "poor to very poor", 4 "poor", 5 "fair", 6 "fair to good"
7 "good", 8 "good to excellent", 9 "excellent" and 10 "perfect". Diffraction-limited seeing
error level (~0.8 Strehl) is between 8 and 9.
Pickering 1 Pickering 2 Pickering 3 Pickering 4 Pickering 5
Pickering 6 Pickering 7 Pickering 9 Pickering 10Pickering 8
William H. Pickering
(1858-1938)
SOLO Optics
90. 90
Other Metrics that define Image Quality
FIGURE: Illustration of a point source (stellar) image degradation caused by
atmospheric turbulence. The left column shows best possible average
seeing error in 2 arc seconds seeing (ro~70mm @ 550nm) for four
aperture sizes. The errors are generated according to Eq.53-54, with the
2" aperture error having only the roughness component (Eq.54), and
larger apertures having the tilt component added at a rate of 20% for
every next level of the aperture size, as a rough approximation of its
increasing contribution to the total error (the way it is handled by the
human eye is pretty much uncharted territory). The two columns to the
right show one possible range of error fluctuation, between half and
double the average error. The best possible average RMS seeing error is
approximately 0.05, 0.1, 0.2 and 0.4 wave, from top to bottom (the effect
would be identical if the aperture was kept constant, and ro reduced). The
smallest aperture is nearly unaffected most of the time. The 4" is already
mainly bellow "diffraction-limited", while the 8" has very little chance of
ever reaching it, even for brief periods of time. The 16" is, evidently,
affected the most. The D/ro ratio for its x2 error level is over 10, resulting
in clearly developed speckle structure. Note that the magnification shown
is over 1000x per inch of aperture, or roughly 10 to 50 times more than
practical limits for 2"-16" aperture range, respectively. At given nominal
magnification, actual (apparent) blur size would be smaller inversely to
the aperture size. It would bring the x2 blur in the 16" close to that in 2"
aperture (but it is obvious how a further deterioration in seeing quality
would affect the 16" more).
Eugène Michel Antoniadi
(1870 –, 1944)
The scale, invented by Eugène Antoniadi, a Greek astronomer, is on a 5 point system, with one being
the best seeing conditions and 5 being worst. The actual definitions are as follows:
I. Perfect seeing, without a quiver.
II. Slight quivering of the image with moments of calm lasting several seconds.
III. Moderate seeing with larger air tremors that blur the image.
IV. Poor seeing, constant troublesome undulations of the image.
V. Very bad seeing, hardly stable enough to allow a rough sketch to be made.
Image Degradation Caused by Atmospheric Turbulence
SOLO Optics
95. 95
SOLO
converging beam
=
spherical wavefront
parallel beam
=
plane wavefront
Image Plane
Ideal Optics
P'
Optical Aberration
converging beam
=
spherical wavefront
Image Plane
Ideal Optics
diverging beam
=
spherical wavefront
P
P'
An Ideal Optical System can be defined by one of the three different and equivalent ways:
All the rays emerging from a point source P, situated at a finite or infinite distance
from the Optical System, will intersect at a common point P’, on the Image Plane.
1
All the rays emerging from a point source P will travel the same Optical Path to reach
the image point P’.
2
The wavefront of light, focused by the Optical System on the Image Plane, has a
perfectly spherical shape, with the center at the Image point P.
3
Ideal Optical System
96. 96
SOLO
ideal wavefrontparallel beam
=
plane wavefront
Image Plane
Non-ideal Optics
aberrated beam
=
iregular wavefront
diverging beam
=
spherical wavefront
aberrated beam
=
irregular wavefront
Image Plane
Non-ideal Optics
ideal wavefront
Optical Aberration
Real Optical System
An Aberrated Optical System can be defined by one of the three different and equivalent
ways:
The rays emerging from a point source P, situated at a finite or infinite distance
from the Optical System, do not intersect at a common point P’, on the Image Plane.
1
The rays emerging from a point source P will not travel the same Optical Path to reach
the Image Plane
2
The wavefront of light, focused by the Optical System on the Image Plane, is not
spherical.
3
97. 97
Optical Aberration W (x,y) is the path deviation between the distorted and reference
Wavefront.
SOLO Optical Aberration
98. 98
SOLO Optical Aberration
Display of Optical Aberration W (x,y)
Rays Deviation1
Optical Path Length Difference2
wavefront shape W (x,y)3
x
y
x
x
y
yxW ,
y
yxW ,
Red circle denotes the pupile margin.
Arrows shows how each ray is deviated
as it emerges from the pupil plane.
Each of the vectors indicates the the
local slope of W (x,y).
The aberration W (x,y) is
represented in x,y plane by
color contours.
Wavefront
Error
Optical
Distance
Errors
Ray
Errors
The Wavefront error agrees with
Optical Path Length Difference,
But has opposite sign because a
long (short) optical path causes
phase retardation (advancement).
Aberration Type:
Negative vertical
coma
Reference
99. 99
SOLO Optical Aberration
Display of Optical Aberration W (x,y)
Advanced phase <= Short optical path
Retarded phase <= Long optical path
Reference
Ectasia
x
y y
yxW ,
x x
y
yxW ,
Ray Errors Optical Distance Errors Wavefront Error
100. 100
Optical AberrationSOLO
Real Imaging Systems
Start from the idealized conditions of Gaussian Optics.
Object
Gaussian
Image
planeExit
Pupil
(ExP)
Optics
00 ,0, zxP
gg zxP ,0,'
iz
gz
y
x
z
Gaussian
Image
zyxQ ,,
0,0,0O
n
We have an Ideal Optical System with the center of the Exit Pupil (ExP) at point O (0,0,0).
The Optical Axis (OA) passes through O in the z direction. Normal to OA we defined the
Cartezian coordinates x,y. (x,z) is the tangential (meridional) plane and (y,z) the sagittal
plane defined by P and OA.
00 ,0, zxP Object
0,0,0O Center of ExP
gg zxP ,0,' Gaussian Image
gzz Gaussian Image plane
'POP Chief Ray
'PQP General Ray zyxQ ,,
The Gaussian Image is obtained
from rays starting at the Object P that
passing through the Optics intersect
at P’.
':' QPnPQnPQPpathOptical
General Ray
Aberrations
101. 101
SOLO
Real Imaging Systems
'POP Chief Ray
'PQP General Ray zyxQ ,,
For an idealized system all the optical
paths are equal.
':' QPnPQnPQPpathOptical
General Ray
''
''
OPnPOnPOP
QPnPQnPQP
2/1222/12
0
2
0
2/1222
2/12
0
22
0
gg
gg
zxnzxn
zzyxxn
zzyxxn
Object
Gaussian
Image
planeExit
Pupil
(ExP)
Optics
00 ,0, zxP
gg zxP ,0,'
iz
gz
y
x
z
Gaussian
Image
zyxQ ,,
0,0,0O
n
Optical Aberration
Aberrations (continue – 1)
102. 102
SOLO
Real Imaging Systems
Object
Gaussian
Image
planeExit
Pupil
(ExP)
Optics
00 ,0, zxP
gg zxP ,0,'
iz
Gaussian
Spherical
Waves
center P gz
y
x
z
Gaussian
Image
zyxQ ,,
0,0,0O
Gaussian
Spherical
Waves
center P'
For homogeneous media (n = constant) the velocity of light is constant, therefore the
rays starting/arriving from/to a point are perpendicular to the spherical wavefronts.
Optical paths from P:
2/12
0
22
0),( zzyxxnQPV
2/1222
)',( gg zzyxxnPQV
Optical paths to P’:
Rays from P:
2/12
0
22
0
00
,,),(
ˆ
,
1
zzyxx
zzzyyxxx
QPV
n
s zyxQP
Rays to P’:
2/1222
,,)',(
ˆ
',
1
gg
gg
zyxPQ
zzyxx
zzzyyxxx
PQV
n
s
Optical Aberration
Aberrations (continue – 2)
103. 103
SOLO
Real Imaging Systems
Departures from the idealized conditions of Gaussian Optics in a real Optical System are
called Aberrations
00 ,0, zxP Object
0,0,0O Center of ExP
gg zxP ,0,' Gaussian Image
gzz Gaussian Image plane
The aberrated image of P in
the Gaussian Image plane is
gii zyxP ,,"
Define the Reference Gaussian
Sphere having the center at P’
and passing through O:
022222
gg zzxxzyx
P” is the intersection of rays normal to the
Aberrated Wavefront that passes trough point
O (OP” is a Chief Ray).
Choose any point on the Aberrated Wavefront. The Ray
intersects the Reference Gaussian Sphere at Q (x, y, z).
Q "PQ
Object
Gaussian
Image
planeExit
Pupil
(ExP)
Optics
00 ,0, zxP zyxQ ,,
gg zxP ,0,'
gii zyxP ,,"
iy
iz
Reference
Gaussian
Sphere
center P'
Aberrated
Wavefront
center P"
0,0,0O
gz
y
x Q
z
Gaussian
Image
Aberrated
Image
ChiefRay
Chief
Ray
Optical Aberration
Aberrations (continue – 3)
104. 104
SOLO
Real Imaging Systems
Object
Gaussian
Image
planeExit
Pupil
(ExP)
Optics
00 ,0, zxP zyxQ ,,
gg zxP ,0,'
gii zyxP ,,"
iy
iz
Reference
Gaussian
Sphere
center P'
Aberrated
Wavefront
center P"
0,0,0O
gz
y
x Q
z
Gaussian
Image
Aberrated
Image
ChiefRay
Chief
Ray
Choose any point on the Aberrated Wavefront. The Ray
intersects the Reference Gaussian Sphere at Q (x, y, z).
Q "PQ
QPVQPVW ,,
By definition of the wavefront, the
optical path length of the ray starting
at the object P and ending at
is identical to that of the Chief Ray
ending at O.
Q
Therefore the Wave Aberration is defined as
the difference in the optical paths from P to Q
V (P,Q) to that from P to QPVQ ,,
Define the Optical Path from
P(x0,0,-z0) to Q (x,y,z) as:
zyxQ
zxP
raydnQPV
,,
,0, 00
:,
Since by definition: OPVQPV ,,
zyxQWOzxPVzyxQzxPVW ,,0,0,0,,0,,,,,0, 0000
Since Q (x,y,z) is constraint on the Reference Guidance Sphere:
we can assume that z is a function of x and y, and
022222
gg zzxxzyx
0,0,0,,0,,,,,,0,, 0000 OzxPVyxzyxQzxPVyxW
Optical Aberration
Aberrations (continue – 4)
105. 105
SOLO
Real Imaging Systems
Object
Gaussian
Image
planeExit
Pupil
(ExP)
Optics
00 ,0, zxP zyxQ ,,
gg zxP ,0,'
gii zyxP ,,"
iy
iz
Reference
Gaussian
Sphere
center P'
Aberrated
Wavefront
center P"
0,0,0O
gz
y
x Q
z
Gaussian
Image
Aberrated
Image
ChiefRay
Chief
Ray
Given the Wave Aberration function W (x,y)
the Gaussian Image P’(xg,0,zg)
of P and the point Q (x,y,z)
on the Reference Guidance Sphere
we want to find the point P”(xi,yi,zg)
022222
gg zzxxzyx
0,0,0,,0,,,,,,0,, 0000 OzxPVyxzyxQzxPVyxW
Solution:
Q
x
z
z
yxzyxQPV
x
yxzyxQPV
x
yxW
,,,,,,,,,
2/1222
,,
,,
zzyyxx
zzyyxx
n
z
V
y
V
x
V
gii
gii
Compute relative to Q by differentiating relative to x:022222
gg zzxxzyx
Q
x
z
gi
g
g
gi xx
R
n
zz
xx
zz
R
n
xx
R
n
x
yxW
'''
,
x
yxW
n
R
xx gi
,'
In the same way:
y
yxW
n
R
yi
,'
The ray from Q to P” is given by (see ):
Forward to
a 2nd way
Optical Aberration
Aberrations (continue – 5)
106. 106
SOLO
Real Imaging Systems
Defocus Aberration
Consider an optical system for which the
object P, the Gaussian image P’ and the
aberrated image P” are on the Optical Axis.
The Gaussian Reference Sphere passing through
O (center of ExP) has the center at P’.
The Aberrated Wavefront Sphere passing through
O (center of ExP) has the center at P”.
Consider a ray ( on the Aberrated
Wavefront Sphere) that intersects the Gaussian
Reference Sphere at Q, that is at a distance r
from the Optical Axis.
Q"PQ
UBBnQQnQQVrW cos/, The Wave Aberration is defined as
12
22
1
22
2
cos
'"'"
cos
RRrRrR
U
n
PPBPPB
U
n
rW
Reference
Sphere
center at P2
O
QQ
"P'P
Aberrated
Wavefront
center at P1
Exit
Pupil
(ExP)
B
r 1R
2R
B
U
Gaussian
image
plane
Optical
Axis
R
Image
plane
Optical Aberration
107. 107
SOLO
Real Imaging Systems
Defocus Aberration (continue – 1)
Reference
Sphere
center at P2
O
QQ
"P'P
Aberrated
Wavefront
center at P1
Exit
Pupil
(ExP)
B
r 1R
2R
B
U
Gaussian
image
plane
Optical
Axis
R
Image
plane
Let make the following assumptions:
12
22
1
22
2
cos
'"'"
cos
RRrRrR
U
n
PPBPPB
U
n
rW
21,1cos RRrU
4
1111
2
82
1
82
1
'"'"
cos
4
3
2
3
1
2
21
124
1
4
2
1
2
14
2
4
2
2
2
2
r
RR
r
RR
n
RR
R
r
R
r
R
R
r
R
r
Rn
PPBPPB
U
n
rW
1
1682
11
32
x
xxx
x
Assume: RRRRRR 2112 &
2
2
2
r
R
Rn
rW
we have: Δ R is called the Longitudinal Defocus.
Optical Aberration
108. 108
SOLO
Real Imaging Systems
Defocus Aberration (continue – 2)
For a circular exit pupil of radius a we have:
22
2
#
8
dA
f
Rn
W
a
R
f
2
:# F number:
Define: a
r
:
Therefore
Where is the peak value of the
Defocus Aberration
2
#
8
:
f
Rn
Ad
Reference
Sphere
center at P2
O
QQ
"P'P
Aberrated
Wavefront
center at P1
Exit
Pupil
(ExP)
B
r 1R
2R
B
U
Gaussian
image
plane
Optical
Axis
R
Image
plane
a
Optical Aberration
111. 111
SOLO
Real Imaging Systems
Wavefront Tilt Aberration
Reference
Sphere
centered at P1
O
zyxQ ,,Q
1P
Abrrrated
Wavefront
center at P2
Exit
Pupil
(ExP)
B
r
B
U
ix
2P
Gaussian
image
plane
Tangential
plane
1R
R
R
Assume an optical system that has one ore more
optical elements tilted and/or decentered.
The object P is on the Optical Axes (OA), therefore
the Gaussian image P1 is also on OA. Therefore the
Gaussian Reference Sphere that passes trough ExP
center O has it’s center at P1. P2 is the aberrated
image on the Gaussian image plane (that contains
P1) is a distance xi from OA. The Aberrated
Wavefront that passes through O has it’s center at
P2. Therefore for small P1P2 the two surfaces are
tilted by an angle β.
Consider the ray where:2QPQ
zyxQ ,, on the Gaussian Reference Sphere 02 1
222
xRzyx
Q on the Aberrated Wavefront Sphere centered at P2 and radius R.
cos1 RR
12 ,0, RxP i the aberrated image
RRxi sin
sin,cos, rryx
Optical Aberration
112. 112
SOLO
Real Imaging Systems
Wavefront Tilt Aberration (continue – 1)
Reference
Sphere
centered at P1
O
zyxQ ,,Q
1P
Abrrrated
Wavefront
center at P2
Exit
Pupil
(ExP)
B
r
B
U
ix
2P
Gaussian
image
plane
Tangential
plane
1R
R
R
We have
x
W
n
R
Rxi
QQnQQVrW ,
The Wave Aberration is
n
x
W
cos
0
rnxnxd
x
W
W
x
For a circular exit pupil of radius a we have:
a
r
:
coscos, 1BanW
where:
anB :1
Optical Aberration
113. 113
SOLO
Real Imaging Systems
Departures from the idealized conditions of Gaussian Optics in a real Optical System are
called Aberrations
Monochromatic Aberrations
Chromatic Aberrations
• Monochromatic Aberrations
Departures from the first order theory are embodied
in the five primary aberrations
1. Spherical Aberrations
2. Coma
3. Astigmatism
4. Field Curvature
5. Distortion
This classification was done in 1857
by Philipp Ludwig von Seidel (1821 – 1896)
• Chromatic Aberrations
1. Axial Chromatic Aberration
2. Lateral Chromatic Aberration
Optical Aberration
117. 117
SOLO
Real Imaging Systems
Seidel Aberrations
Consider a spherical surface of radius R, with an object P0 and the image P0’ on the
Optical Axis.
n
'n
CB
R
0P '0P
,rQ
0V
r
z
s
's
Chief Ray
General Ray
AS
Enp
Exp
The Chief Ray is P0 V0 P0’ and a
General Ray P0 Q P0’.
The Wave Aberration is defined as
the difference in the optical path
lengths between a General Ray and
the Chief Ray.
snsnQPnQPnPVPQPPrW '''''' 00000000
On-Axis Point Object
The aperture stop AS, entrance pupil EnP,
and exit pupil ExP are located at the
refracting surface.
Optical Aberration
118. 118
SOLO
Real Imaging Systems
Seidel Aberrations (continue – 1)
n
'n
CB
R
0P '0P
,rQ
0V
r
z
s
's
Chief Ray
General Ray
AS
Enp
Exp
2
2
22
11
R
r
RrRRz
Define:
2
2
11
2
2
R
r
xxf
R
r
x
2/1
1
2
1
'
xxf
2/3
1
4
1
"
xxf 2/5
1
8
3
'"
xxf
Develop f (x) in a Taylor series 0"'
6
0"
2
0'
1
0
32
f
x
f
x
f
x
fxf
1
1682
11
32
x
xxx
x
Rr
R
r
R
r
R
r
R
r
Rz
5
6
3
42
2
2
1682
11
On Axis Point Object
From the Figure:
222
rzRR 02 22
rRzz
Optical Aberration
119. 119
SOLO
Real Imaging Systems
Seidel Aberrations (continue – 2)
n
'n
CB
R
0P '0P
,rQ
0V
r
z
s
's
Chief Ray
General Ray
AS
Enp
Exp
From the Figure:
2/1
2
2/12
2
2/12222/122
0
212
2
22
z
s
sR
sszsR
rsszzrszQP
rzRz
2
4
2
2
1
1682
11
2
1
1
32
z
s
sR
z
s
sR
s
x
xxx
x
2
3
42
4
2
3
42
2
82
822
1
82
1
3
42
R
r
R
r
s
sR
R
r
R
r
s
sR
s
R
r
R
r
z
4
2
2
22/122
0
11
8
111
8
111
2
1
r
sRssRR
r
sR
srszQP
4
2
2
22/122
0
1
'
1
'8
11
'
1
8
11
'
1
2
1
''' r
RssRsR
r
Rs
srzsPQ
In the same way:
On Axis Point Object
Optical Aberration
120. 120
SOLO
Real Imaging Systems
Seidel Aberrations (continue – 3)
n
'n
CB
R
0P '0P
,rQ
0V
r
z
s
's
Chief Ray
General Ray
AS
Enp
Exp
4
2
2
2
0
11
8
111
8
111
2
1
r
sRssRR
r
sR
sQP
4
2
2
2
0
1
'
1
'8
11
'
1
8
11
'
1
2
1
'' r
RssRsR
r
Rs
sPQ
Therefore:
4
22
2
42
000
11
'
11
'
'
8
1
82
'
'
'
''''
r
sRs
n
sRs
n
R
rr
R
nn
s
n
s
n
snsnQPnQPnrW
Since P0’ is the Gaussian image of P0 we have
R
nn
s
n
s
n
'
'
'
and:
44
22
0
11
'
11
'
'
8
1
rar
sRs
n
sRs
n
rW S
On Axis Point Object
Optical Aberration
121. 121
SOLO
Real Imaging Systems
Seidel Aberrations (continue – 4)
Off-Axis Point Object
Consider the spherical surface of radius R, with an object P and its Gaussian image P’
outside the Optical Axis.
The aperture stop AS, entrance pupil EnP, and
exit pupil ExP are located at the refracting surface.
Using
''~ 00 CPPCPP
the transverse magnification
s
n
s
n
nn
s
s
n
s
n
nn
s
Rs
Rs
h
h
Mt
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
''
sn
sn
nn
s
s
nn
nn
s
s
nn
Mt
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
n
'n
CB
R
0P
'0P
,rQ
0V
r
z
s
's
Chief Ray
GeneralRay
AS
Enp
Exp
'P
Undeviated Ray
P
h
'h
V
Optical Aberration
122. 122
SOLO
Real Imaging Systems
Seidel Aberrations (continue – 5)
Off-Axis Point Object
The Wave Aberration is defined as the difference
in the optical path lengths between the General
Ray and the Undeviated Ray.
4
0
4
0 ''''
''
VVVQa
PVPPPVPVPPQP
PVPPQPQW
S
For the approximately similar triangles VV0C and CP0’P’ we have:
CP
CV
PP
VV
''' 0
0
0
0
''
'
''
'
0
0
0
0 hbh
Rs
R
PP
CP
CV
VV
Rs
R
b
'
:
22
11
'
11
'
'
8
1
sRs
n
sRs
n
aS
n
'n
CB
R
0P
'0P
,rQ
0V
r
z
s
's
Chief Ray
GeneralRay
AS
Enp
Exp
'P
Undeviated Ray
P
h
'h
V
Optical Aberration
123. 123
SOLO
Real Imaging Systems
Seidel Aberrations (continue – 6)
Off-Axis Point Object
Wave Aberration.
4
0
4
'' VVVQaPVPPQPQW S
Define the polar coordinate (r,θ) of the projection of Q in the plane of exit pupil, with
V0 at the origin.
cos'2'cos2 222
0
2
0
2
2
hbrhbrVVrVVrVQ
'0
hbVV
442222
4
0
4
'cos'2'
''
hbhbrhbra
VVVQaPVPPQPQW
S
S
cos'4'2cos'4cos'4';, 33222222234
rhbrhbrhbrhbrahrW S
P
r 'y
'x
n
'n
CB
R
0P
'0P
,rQ
0V
r
z
s
's
Chief Ray
GeneralRay
AS
Enp
Exp
'P
Undeviated Ray
P
h
'h
V
Optical Aberration
124. 124
SOLO
Real Imaging Systems
Seidel Aberrations (continue – 7)
General Optical Systems
cos''cos'cos'';, 33222222234
rhbCrhbCrhbCrhbCrChrW DiFCAsCoSp
A General Optical Systems has more than on Reflecting or
Refracting surface. The image of one surface acts as an
object for the next surface, therefore the aberration is additive.
We must address the aberration in the plane of the exit pupil, since the rays follow
straight lines from the plane of the exit pupil.
The general Wave Aberration Function is:
1. Spherical Aberrations CoefficientSp
C
2. Coma CoefficientCoC
3. Astigmatism CoefficientAsC
4. Field Curvature CoefficientFCC
5. Distortion CoefficientDiC
where:
n
'n
C O
0P
'0P
,rQ
0V
r
s
's
Chief Ray
GeneralRay
Exit Pupil
Exp
'P
Undeviated Ray
P
h
'h
~
Optical Aberration
125. 125
Spherical Aberations
B
4
1
r
4
4
1
rBW
O
W
( a )
Coma
cos' 3
rhFW
W
'hF
O
( b )
r
Astigmatism
cos' 22
rhCW
W
( c )
2
'hC
O
r
Curvature of Field
2
'
2
1
hD
r
22
'
2
1
rhDW
O
W
( d )
Distortion
3
'hE
cos'3
rhEW
W
( e )
r
O
SOLO
Real Imaging Systems
Seidel Aberrations (continue – 8)
cos''cos'cos'';, 32222234
rhCrhCrhCrhCrChrW DiFCAsCoSp
Optical Aberration
126. 126
OpticsSOLO
Real Imaging Systems – Aberrations (continue – 1)
1. Spherical Aberrations
Longitudinal variation of focus with aperture (the distance of the parallel rays from the
Optical Axis.
n 'n
C
A
F’
R
Paraxial
Focus
Spherical
Aberration
127. 127
SOLO
Real Imaging Systems
Graphical Explanation of Coma Blur
1
1
2
2
3
3
4
4
Optical Axis
1
Meridional
(Tangential)
Plane
P
Image
Plane
Tangential
Rays 1
O
Lens
A Tangential Rays 1
Chief Ray
1
1
1
2
2
3
3
4
4
Optical Axis
1
Sagittal
Plane
P
Image
Plane
Sagittal
Rays 2
O
Lens
A
2
Sagittal Rays 2
Chief Ray
2
1
1
2
2
3
3
4
4
Optical Axis
1
P
Image
Plane
Skew
Rays 3
O
Lens
A
2
3
Skew Rays 3
Chief Ray
3
1
1
2
2
3
3
4
4
Optical Axis
1
P
Image
Plane
Skew
Rays 4
O
Lens
A
2
3
4
Skew Rays 4
Chief Ray
4
2. Coma
Optical Aberration
128. 128
SOLO
Real Imaging Systems
1
2
3 4
P
Image
Plane
O
SC
SC
ST CC 3
Coma Blur Spot Shape
Tangential
Coma
Sagittal
Coma
1
1
2
2
3
3
4
4
Optical Axis
1
P
Image
Plane
O
Lens
A
2
3
4
Coma Image Pattern
Chief Ray
Tangential
Plane
Sagittal
Plane
Graphical Explanation of Coma Blur (continue – 1)
2. Coma (continue – 1)
Optical Aberration
1
'1 24
'4 '2
3
'3
0
60
1
Corresponding
points on 11
1
33
4
4
2
2
'1
'1
'2
'2
'3'3
'4
'4
0
Points on lens
'1
1
1
'1
S
P,O
129. 129
OpticsSOLO
Real Imaging Systems – Aberrations (continue – 3)
3. Astigmatism
Meridional
plane
Sagittal
plane
Primary
image
Secondary
image
Circle of least
confusion
Object
point
Optical
System
Chief
ray
SF
TF
Ray in
Sagittal plane
Ray in
Meridional plane