Argumentative essay sample on topic concerning genetically modified foods.

1. Introduction
Genetically modified foods have become a major concern and have caused controversy
regarding both their health and environmental effects (2). 'Using modern techniques of
genetic engineering, it is possible to introduce specific genetic material derived from any
species of plant, animal, or microorganism, or even a synthetic material, into different
species of plant' (Journal 1) This allows a desired trait to be enhanced and reproduced. (3)
(4) 'The resulting plants are commonly known as genetically modified (GM) plants; when
used as food sources, they are known as GM foods.' (Journal 1)
'It is probable that crop improvement began as soon as farming did' (1) It is thought that
improvement to crops and harvesting developed subconsciously with farmers selectively
breeding animals and isolating, to then reproduce crops from those with the most desired
attributes and from highly variable populations.(1) The first genetically modified crop was
the tomato Flavr Savr, produced by a Californian company Calgene, in 1992 whose
'intention was to create a vine-ripened tomato that was both 'long-lasting and tasty'. (6)
However the company failed to prevent the skin of the tomato from soften whilst the fruit
ripened. It took 10 years for the development of the tomato, (6) but eventually it received
FDA approval in 1994 (6), and led to an increase in GM food products available on the
market.
Romania, Mexico, Germany, Australia and France are just a few of the 13 countries known
to have grown genetically engineered crops on their land for commercial use in the year
2000. (7) The United States of America produced 68% of the worlds GM crops, and
therefore became the largest producer of these crops. In comparison to this, Argentina
produced, 23%, Canada, 7% and China only 1%. Statistics from 2007 have shown a
substantial increase from 1.7 million hectares being used for growing Gm foods in 1996, to
143 million hectares in 23 countries around the globe, with 90% of GM food produced being
in developed or newly-developed countries.(journal one).
Ways to make GM foods.
Genetic modification of a particular plant or animal species can be accomplished by a
number of different ways. (3) Genetic engineering involves the DNA alteration of a plant or
animal's DNA which holds the genetic information of the species. It is the alterations of a
specific gene that enables modification of certain characteristics displayed. In order to
change a certain characteristic, the corresponding gene coding for it, must initially be
isolated in order to be inserted into a new DNA strand using a transfer vector. A Vector 'is
an agent that can carry a DNA fragment into a host cell.' (19) Plasmids are circular DNA
molecules that are examples of vectors and 'can replicate independently of the host cell.' (3)
Once the gene is present in the transfer vector it can then be directed into the cells of the

2. target organism. Then inside the cell the vector replicates and becomes part of the cell's
own DNA, altering the organism's characteristics.
Similar to this method is the vector technique which involves the products being inserted
directly into genome via another vector. As well as this there is also the biolistic method,
which is commonly known as the gene-gun method and is a technique predominantly used
in plant modification. (20) Pellets of metal 'coated with the desirable DNA' are fired at the
target cells which are then allowed to reproduce, and may possibly be cloned in order to
produce a 'genetically identical crop.' (20)
Advantages and disadvantages of GM foods
With the world's population expected to reach 12 billion in the next 50 years, the demand for
high quality produce will continue to increase. By growing genetically modified plants with a
resistance to pests or herbicides, then the use of chemical applications may be reduced, as
can the costs of producing a crop, damage by unwanted pests/weeds.(8)
With the rise of various different virus', diseases and bacteria that effect and inhibit the
growth of a crop, technologies have enabled genetically engineered crops to be resistant to
these different diseases. (9)Plants such as tobacco and potato have had antifreeze genes
introduced in to them, to encourage the plants to withstand cold temperatures that would
normally kill such plants. (10)
A common problem in third world countries is malnutrition with estimations of 1.02 billion
people being undernourished and starved. (13) The main staple diet for these people is rice
which unfortunately does not contain sufficient quantities of the nutrients and vitamins
required to help prevent malnutrition. Genetically engineering this crop in order to create a
nutritionally enriched rice variety would have the potential to help improve and in turn,
eliminate these deficiencies. Vitamin A deficiency, estimated to affect millions of people
around the world prompted the design of 'Golden rice' researched by Ingo Potrykus and
Peter Beyer and contained very large quantities of beta-carotene, which the body uses and
coverts to Vitamin A, and is required for a number of different metabolic functions including
in vision, immune functions and bone metabolism. (3)
'Genetic engineering techniques are now more commonly being used in order to introduce
into plants, particular DNA that leads to the expression of distinct and unique proteins that
are of specific interest and may be harvested and used in the '...production of
pharmaceutical compounds.' (11) Currently, synthesis of plant-derived proteins intended for
pharmaceutical use is still in the early development stages. Examples of the types of protein
and their intended use are summarised in the table below.
Nutrition

3. Some examples of GM plants with improved characteristics designed to improve health and
nutrition are Maize with added vitamin C content, Potato with insulin as well as enhanced
calcium levels, rice with added iron or zinc and coffee beans with decreased caffeine
content. (journal 2)
One study in to which a genetically modified green pepper and a standard unmodified
pepper were analyzed for their nutrient and mineral contents and showed no significant
opposing results between the two peppers. The analysis showed that there was neither
significant difference in the energy and the protein levels nor a difference in the mineral
content which included calcium, phosphorus, iron, sodium, potassium, magnesium, and
zinc. This therefore concluded that, the nutrient composition of the genetically modified
green pepper was found to be equivalent to that of the standard unmodified peppers.
(journal 11)
Another study that tested genetically modified Bt maize on laying quails also gave a similar
conclusion to the green pepper study. (Flachowsky et al., 2005b; Halle et al., 2006).The
results showed that 'Bt maize did not significantly influence health, hatchability and
performances of quails nor did it affect the quality of meat and eggs of quails' compared
with the unmodified maize that was also tested. (journal 2) One exception to this study
however was the that performed by Piva et al. (2001a,b) who noted that 'significantly
improved animal performance was associated with a diet containing the Bt maize.' It is
thought that this 'improved performance' demonstrated by the animals fed the genetically
modified Bt maize crop, was because it reduced 'secondary fungal infection and, as a
consequence, reduced mycotoxin contamination.' (journal 2)
Toxicity
'Publications on GM food toxicity are scarce'. Although there are many arguments and
opinions surrounding the toxicity of GM foods, there is little experimental data and analysis
to construct such arguments. 'In fact, no peer-reviewed publications of clinical studies on
the human health effects of GM food exist. Even animal studies are few and far between'
(18)
Acute toxicity studies on the 'Flavr Savr' genetically modified tomatoes, required by the
FDA, were carried out with rats to determine toxic effects of the GM product. 'It was
concluded that mean body and organ weights, weight gain, food consumption and clinical
chemistry or blood parameters were not significantly different between GM-fed and control
groups.' However it was noted that sections of the stomach in up to 7 of the 20 female rats
fed the GM tomato, showed 'mild/moderate erosive/necrotic lesions' and as well as this 7 of
the 40 rats involved in the experiment were known to have died a few weeks after for
unstated reasons. (18)
Another experiment that tested herbicide-resistant GM maize 'showed significant
differences in fat and carbohydrate contents compared with non-GM maize.' Toxicity tests

4. were performed and showed that the 'rats ability to digest was decreased after eating GM
corn.' (18) Likewise tests in to 'potatoes transformed with a specific toxin gene or the toxin
itself was shown to have caused an array of unwanted effects and showed that, CryI toxin
was indeed stable in the gut of the mouse and 'therefore GM crops expressing it need to be
subjected to "thorough tests...to avoid the risks before marketing.' (18) Such studies support
people's concerns about GM foods and highlight the need for further research in to them
and their health effects.
Allergies
Another issue with the rise in the production of genetically modified crops is the transfer of
allergens in to new crops and the effects of particular allergens on human immune
response. (journal 3) The majority of dietary proteins consumed are hydrolysed, and
digested into smaller peptides that do not produce immune response in most people.
However for those unfortunate enough to have hypersensitivity disorders, allergic type
inflammatory responses can occur when contact with certain foods is made. 'For this
reason, the introduction of genetically modified plants into the human food chain that
contain allergens or proteins of unknown allergic potential could be of risk'. (Journal 8)
Nordlee et al. (1996) cited in (journal 8) demonstrated using the Brazil nut protein that
allergenicity was indeed transferable by genetic modification. Amongst other things these
studies confirmed concerns that 'sensitivity could be transferred to transgenic plants when
an allergen is expressed in a non-native host through genetic modification.' (journal 8)
Lee et all (2006) compared the allergenicity of GM potatoes with that of non- GM potatoes
in which 1886 patients who suffered various allergic diseases etc were used for testing.
From his study he was able to conclude that genetic modification of crops did not cause an
increase in allergenicity.
The use of certain 'animal models' has 'been developed in order to test whether or not food
components such as GM proteins could potentially induce allergic reactions. (journal 2) The
animals are often responders to high IgE and are sensitised before given the 'test
compound.' The animal models all have in common the production of specific IgE
antibodies to the specific proteins. Particular proteins that cause food allergy in humans are
claimed to produce more pronounced IgE responses whereas proteins that do not readily
cause such effects in humans are claimed to induce poor IgE responses. (Journal 2)
An example of one such model is the BN rat which is a 'high-immunoglobulin (particularly
IgE) responder strain' and is similar to humans in the way that they produce 'antigen-
specific immunoglobins',-which are glycoprotein's that function as certain antibodies. (3)
Experimental investigations in to the hypersensitivity of rats to specific proteins performed
by Knippels et al., 1998, showed the rats were capable of producing specific antibodies (IgG
and IgE) and immune responses to the model antigen 'ovalbumin', found in egg white and
often employed in experiments into immunology and hypersensitivity to stimulate allergic
reactions. (3) Analysis of the research showed the rats developed allergic responses to the

5. same problematic proteins that cause reactions in humans. (Knippels & Penninks, 2002).
(Journal 8)
Pharmaceuticals
One of the most impressive applications of genetic engineering is now the development of
so-called "pharma crops."' Specific genes in some useful plants are modified with in order
for certain chemicals, antibodies, hormones and proteins to be produced that can be used
in different applications in the pharmaceutical industry. (14)
The company, INB Biotechnologies in Philadelphia have been recently designing a
'nontoxic anthrax vaccine through the transgenic modification of petunias.' This causes the
production of new proteins by the plant that in turn causes the development of antibodies
against the anthrax bacterium, when consumed. (16) Trials have begun on genetically
engineered crops designed for 'healing wounds and treating conditions such as cystic
fibrosis, cirrhosis of the liver and anaemia; antibodies to fight cancer and vaccines against
rabies, cholera and foot-and-mouth disease.' (15)
The concept of genetically engineered crops for pharmaceutical use is a fairly new idea,
and therefore such products are still in their preliminary stages of design and testing.
However significant concern has been raised surrounding their use and possible
consequences. For instance it is thought that food crops already are or may in the future, be
'contaminated by DNA sequences from GM crops.' (15) Genetically modified crops run the
risk of eventually introducing unknown, potentially harmful chemicals into the food chain, by
accidental cross breeding and seed contamination. (17)
Conclusion
As well as there being many benefits to genetic engineering and the introduction of
genetically modified foods, there are as well, possible dangers and hazards leading to
concern over their use and potential risks to both the environment and to humans. However
there is inconsiderable evidence to suggest that there are disadvantages and significant
risks of consuming GM foods. Various testing has been conducted on an array of
substances and components of GM crops to test for certain effects, some of these being
toxicity and allergenicity. There are conflicting reports; some suggesting GM foods are safe,
others that say they are dangerous and a risk to human health.
Although only slight effects have been observed on the animals tested, it is enough to
warrant anxiety over GM foods and their possible implications on humans. Some would
argue minor changes and effects on animals doesn't necessarily mean that they would have
the same effect, if consumed, on humans, yet, there have also been a number of
experiments that contradict this and analysis of which conclude little or no clinical,
toxicological abnormalities observed in the animals having been tested.

6. It has been demonstrated that Genetic modification as well as being advantageous can also
increase the nutritional value of a food source, providing useful benefits, such as crops with
extra vitamins/minerals etc such as the example of 'golden rice' highlighted above. However
there are also significant disadvantages such as possible toxicity and allergic components
in some GM food sources. Having looked at the evidence surrounding such factors it is
difficult to say whether or not there are nutritional arguments against genetically modified
foods. It is safe to say therefore, that new and improved methods are needed to further
investigate the 'compositional, nutritional, toxicological and metabolic differences between
GM and conventional crops' likewise the 'techniques used in developing GM crops' in order
to expel the fears of many and allow for technology in this field to expand safely. (18)
References
Websites
1. http://www.greenpeace.org/international/campaigns/genetic-engineering accessed
26/11/09
2. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/special_report/1999/02/99/food_under_the_microscope/28
0868.stm accessed 24/11/09
3. http://en.wikipedia.org accessed 25/11/09
4. http://www.csa.com/discoveryguides/gmfood/gloss.php accessed 24/11/09
5. http://www.disabled-world.com/fitness/gm-foods.php accessed 25/11/09
6. http://www.brighthub.com/science/genetics/articles/27236.aspx#ixzz0XoDxyU4H
accessed 24/11/09
7. http://www.csa.com/discoveryguides/gmfood/overview.php accessed 25/11/09
8. Insecticidal proteins from Bacillus thuringiensis protect corn from corn rootworms
(Nature Biotechnology, Vol 19, No 7, pp 668-672, Jul 2001) Lepidopteran-resistant
transgenic plants (US Patent 6313378, Nov 2001, Monsanto) cited in (7)
9. Transgenic Approaches to Combat Fusarium Head Blight in Wheat and Barley (Crop
Science, Vol 41, No 3, pp 628-627, Jun 2001) Post-transcriptional gene silencing in
plum pox virus resistant transgenic European plum containing the plum pox
potyvirus coat protein gene (Transgenic Research, Vol 10, No 3, pp 201-209, Jun
2001) cited in (7)
10. Type II fish antifreeze protein accumulation in transgenic tobacco does not confer
frost resistance (Transgenic Research, Vol 8, No 2, pp 105-117, Apr 1999) cited in
(7)
11. http://www.card.iastate.edu/publications/DBS/PDFFiles/06wp429.pdf accessed
25/11/09
12. Molecular farming for new drugs and vaccines EMBO report -
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1369121/pdf/6-
7400470.pdf/?tool=pmcentrez accessed 24/11/09
13. http://www.wfp.org/hunger accessed 24/11/09

7. 14. http://www.matternetwork.com/2008/7/making-most-pharma-crops.cfm accessed
25/11/09
15. http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn4709 accessed 26/11/09
16. http://www.scu.edu/ethics/practicing/focusareas/medical/conference/presentations/g
enetically-modified-foods.html accessed 26/11/09
17. http://www.beep.ac.uk/content/371.0.html accessed 24/11/09
18. http://www.biointegrity.org and Fares, N.H. and El-Sayed, A.K. (1998) Fine structural
changes in the ileum of mice fed on delta-endotoxin-treated potatoes and transgenic
potatoes. Natural Toxins 6, 219-233 cited in
http://www.actionbioscience.org/biotech/pusztai.html accessed 25/11/09
19. http://www.web-books.com/MoBio/Free/Ch9A4.htm accessed 09/12/09
20. http://library.thinkquest.org/C004367/be9.shtml accessed 09/12/09
Journals
1. Risk assessment of genetically modified crops for nutrition and health- Javier A
Magaña-Gómez and Ana M Calderón de la Barca
2. Safety and nutritional assessment of GM plants and derived food and feed: The role
of animal feeding trials- Report of the EFSA GMO Panel Working Group on Animal
Feeding Trials
3. Assessment of the safety of foods derived from genetically modified (GM) crops - A.
Ko¨ niga,*, A. Cockburnb, R.W.R. Crevelc, E. Debruyned, R. Grafstroeme, U.
Hammerlingf, I. Kimberg, I. Knudsenh, H.A. Kuiperi, A.A.C.M. Peijnenburgi, A.H.
Penninksj, M. Poulsenh, M. Schauzuk, J.M. Wall
4. Genetically modified plants and food hypersensitivity diseases: Usage and
implications of experimental models for risk assessment A new oral sensitization
model in rats to food proteins and the importance of dietary control in oral
sensitization with soy- Knippels, LMJ; Penninks, AH; Spanhaak, S, et al
5. The nutrient composition of the herbicide-tolerant green pepper is equivalent to that
of the conventional green pepper Hongju Parka, Sunghyen Leea,c,4, Hyunjin
Jeonga, Sumook Choa, Hyekyung Chuna, Ohhyun Backa, Donghern Kimb, Hyun S.
Lillehojc
Books
1. Plant biotechnology. Ed, Nigel G. Halford (2006) chapter 1 pg5 John Wiley and sons
Ltd west sussex, England