4. Pseudohyperkalemia Pseudohyperkalemia
Poor phlebotomy technique:
fist clenching during phlebotomy raises both
serum and plasma potassium by as much as 1 meq/L
Hemolysis : improper drawing blood
Thrombocytosis ( > 500,000/µl)
Potassium is released from platelets
during clotting, raising the serum but not plasma potassium
platelet-induced serum
pseudohyperkalemia
Leukocytosis
Leukemic lymphocytes are fragile and release potassium
during centrifugation when exposed to high concentrations
5.
6. Definitions of the severity of Definitions of the severity of
hyperkalemiahyperkalemia
Author Year Mild Moderate Severe
Levinsky 1966 < 6.5
mmol/l
6.5–8 mmol/l with
ECG : peaked T-
waves
>8 mmol/l or any level +
prolongation of the QRS
complex/ventricular
arrhythmias/heart block
Vanden
Hoek et al.for
American Heart
Association
2005 5.1–5.9
mmol/l
6.0–6.9 mmol/l >7 mmol/l
Soar et al.for
the European
Resuscitation
Council
2010 5.5–5.9
mmol/l
6.0–6.4 mmol/l ≥6.5 mmol/l
El-Sherif and
Turitto
2011 5.5–7.5
mmol/l
7.5–10 mmol/l >10 mmol/l
7. Symptoms & Signs of HyperkalemiaSymptoms & Signs of Hyperkalemia
Clinical FeaturesClinical Features
– CardiovascularCardiovascular
V-Fib, complete heart block, asystoleV-Fib, complete heart block, asystole
EKG abnormalitiesEKG abnormalities
– Tall, peaked T-waves, short QT, prolonged PRTall, peaked T-waves, short QT, prolonged PR
– QRS widening, flattening of P-waveQRS widening, flattening of P-wave
– QRS complex degrades into sine wave patternQRS complex degrades into sine wave pattern
8. EKG findingsEKG findings
Increased T-wave amplitude 6 to 7 meq/L
Prolonged PR interval
QRS widening 7 to 8 meq/L
Loss of P wave
Sine wave pattern 8 to 9 meq/L
Ventricular fibrillation or a-systole > 9meq/L
15. Hyperkalemia, renalHyperkalemia, renal
Expected renal response:
UK excretion > 200meq/D; TTKG > 10
UK excretion < 200meq/D Renal
CCr < 25ml/min ↓ GFR
CCr > 25ml/min ↓ Tubular secretion
Low flow rate in CCD if TTKG > 10:
low osmoles or flow
confirm with loop diuretic
Low K in secretion in CCD if TTKG < 5:
aldosterone minus
check response to 9αF
16. Trans-tubular K GradientTrans-tubular K Gradient
TTKG: to interpret urine K by adjusting it﹝ ﹞
for water reabsorption in renal medulla to
reflect K in lumen of CCD﹝ ﹞
TTKG= Uk÷(Uosm/Posm) /Pk﹛ ﹜
TTKG, physiological : 6 ~ 8
20. Aldosterone minusAldosterone minus
lumen positivelumen positive
Slow Na reabsorption Fast Cl reabsorption
↓ECV
↑Renin
Renal salt wasting
↑ECV or normal
↓Renin
No renal salt wasting
Low aldosterone bioactivity
Spirinolatone / ACEI / ARB
Heparin / βblocker
↓ENaC
Amiloride / Trimethoprim
Chloride Shunt
Gordon’s syndrome
Drugs: CsA
Distal RTA
21. PseudoHypoAldosteronism: PHAPseudoHypoAldosteronism: PHA
Bonny et al, JASN 13: 2399-2414, 2002Bonny et al, JASN 13: 2399-2414, 2002
Clinical Gene Defects
Type I: AR
AD
Renal: salt wasting/hypo-Na
Hyper-K
Metabolic acidosis
PAC↑/PRA↑
Extra-renal: chest, GI, skin
Renal : spontaneous remission
ENaC
Mineracorticoid receptor
Type II: AD
( Gordon syndrome )
Renal: HTN
Hyper-K
HCMA
normal PAC; PRA↓
A: 1q31-q42
B: WNK4
C: WNK1
Type III:
Acquired
(obstructive
nephropathy; UTI;
lead; amyloidosis)
GFR↓; Excessive salt loss
Hyper-K
HCMA
PAC↑/PRA↑
Transient PHA
22.
23. Main danger of hyperkalemiaMain danger of hyperkalemia
Cardiac arrhythmiaCardiac arrhythmia
Onset Duration
Calcium gluconate:
10%, 10 ~ 20cc
as a bolus
Immediate
< 5 min
30 ~ 60min
NaHCO3:
45 ~ 90meq
5 ~ 10 min 1 ~ 2 hours
Albuterol:
10 ~ 20mg inh,
10min
15 ~ 30 min 2 ~ 3 hours
Glucose/Insulin
15 ~ 30 min 3 ~ 4 hours
HD Immediate Several hours
K exchange resin
1 ~ 4 hours Few hours
24. Therapeutic principlesTherapeutic principles
Who to treat ?
Hospital admission is often recommended for
patients with SK > 6 meq/L ;
Interventions for any patient with SK >6.5 meq/L
To minimize membrane excitability
To shift potassium into cells
Skeletal muscle is the reservoir for
more than 70% of body potassium
Promote potassium loss
25. Calcium gluconate IVCalcium gluconate IV
Indications:
Cardiac irritability or SK > 7.5 meq/L
10ml of 10% calcium gluconate IV
as a bolus over 5 to 10 min
Repeat it if no change in ECG is seen
after 5 to 10 min
How it helps……?
It protects the myocardium from toxicity to potassium
but, there is concern about digoxin toxicity: an inhibitor
of Na-K ATPase, which increases intracellular calcium
26. Sodium bicarbonateSodium bicarbonate
Uptake of K by skeletal muscle by favoring Na-
HCO3 cotransport and Na-H exchange, which, by
increasing intracellular sodium, increases the
activity of Na-K ATPase
HCO3 ceased to be a recommended intervention
for acute hyperkalemia: studies showing that
bicarbonate has little effect on the serum
potassium concentration in stable hemodialysis
patients, except for metabolic acidosis
HCO3 is a rational therapy to enhance potassium
excretion in patients with intact kidney function
27. Insulin & glucose IVInsulin & glucose IV
10 units of regular insulin in 50 ml of 50 %
dextrose (bolus)
Initial bolus should be followed by
continuous infusion of 5% dextrose
↓SK by about 1 meq/L within an hour
Infusion of RI at 20 U/H after a 6.6-U priming
dose in a 70-kg healthy subject will rapidly raise insulin
levels to approximately 500 μU/ml ( > 100 μU/ml ) with a
near maximal kalemic effect
But, to maintain euglycemia at these insulin
levels, infusion of glucose at 40 g/H is required
29. beta-2 agonist albuterolbeta-2 agonist albuterol
(also called salbutamol)(also called salbutamol)
Inhalation/Nebulization/IV has been studied in stable
hyperkalemic patients with end-stage renal disease.
SK falls by 0.3 ~ 0.6 meq /L within 30 minutes
The doses via inhalation (the only formulation
available in the United States): 4 ~ 8 times those
for the treatment of acute asthma
At high doses, albuterol may stimulate both beta-1
receptors, which can precipitate arrhythmias, and
alpha-receptors, which cause K release from the liver
and can transiently increase SK by >0.4 meq/L
30. Dialysate KDialysate K
predialysis plasma K dialysate K
>7.0 meq/L <2.0 meq/L
>5.5 2.0
Arrhythmia 2.5-3.0
On digitalis 2.5-3.0
31. Response of plasma potassium to potassium removal by
dialysis
Change in PK at the end of a 3-hour dialysis against a zero
potassium dialysate (blue ) and 2 hours after dialysis (red )
100 mmol of potassium removed ( 70-kg subject) at the end
of dialysis (blue ) and 2 hours after dialysis (red )
32.
33. Sodium polystyrene sulfonateSodium polystyrene sulfonate
(Kayexalate)(Kayexalate)
Cation exchange resins: polymer
each gram eliminates 1 meq
K
Sodium polystyren sulphonate
Promote exchange of Na for K in GI
tract
25 to 50g with 100ml of 20% sorbitol
3 to 4 times a day
Serious gastrointestinal complications:
fatal colonic perforation
34. PatiromerPatiromer
Patiromer's (non-absorbable synthetic polymer )
active groups are comprised of alpha-
fluorocarboxylic acids that are paired with calcium
ions rather than sodium: each gram eliminates 1 meq
K
The acid groups are dissociated, allowing them to
bind potassium↓, ammonium, and magnesium↓
It does not swell appreciably when exposed to
water and it does not require a laxative to reach
the distal colon
Patiromer was approved by the United States Food
and Drug Administration in October 2015 and
35. Sodium zirconiumSodium zirconium
cyclosilicatecyclosilicate (ZS-9)(ZS-9)
A crystal that is highly selective for K and ammonium
ions through mechanisms that are very similar to those
of naturally occurring ion channels
Na, Ca, and Mg are too small to form such stable
bonds, making it thermodynamically unfavorable for
them to be bound by the crystal
Because ZS-9 does not contain acid groups that
dissociate, it binds potassium throughout the
gastrointestinal tract
Effective in the management of acute hyperkalemia
36.
37. AddisonAddison’’s disease:s disease: partialpartial
Gagnon et al, NDT 2001Gagnon et al, NDT 2001
Hyponatremia
Hyperkalemia or Normokalemia
Mild hyperchloremic acidosis
↓Plasma anion gap: circulating cationic
sunstance
↑BUN and ↑Cr: modest
↑Hct
UK excretion > 200meq/D
Uald excretion↑
CCD flow rate↑
40. K conservationK conservation
H+/K+- ATPase via MCD
L/I: 0mM/>60mM→active process
PPI use:
↓H+/K+- ATPase: UK +NaHCO3 wasting
↓Delivery via CCD
41. Progesterone in renal collecting ductProgesterone in renal collecting duct
not just a sex hormone anymorenot just a sex hormone anymore
Progesterone
+
K
H
PR bound progesterone
HKα2 mRNA