Chapter 9

1. Three-Dimensional Design
Elements of Three-Dimensional Design
FORM, LINE, PLANE, SPACE, TEXTURE & COLOR
1

2. Elements of Three-Dimensional Design
2
Line: A series of adjacent points; a connection between
points; and a point in motion.
Plane: A three-dimensional form that has length and width,
but minimal thickness.
Volume: An empty 3-D form; in 2-D design, the illusion of
form; in time design, the loudness of a sound.
Mass: A solid 3-D form.
Space: The area within or around an area of substance.
Texture: The visual or tactile quality of a form.
Light: Value and volume; striking a surface; ambient and
directed; as sculpture.
Color: A specific hue determined by its wavelength.
Time: Specific temporal location.

3. Form
Types of Form
 Volume and mass
 Positive forms and negative space
 Static and dynamic forms
 Kinetic forms
 Mechanical forms
 Form and function
 Orthographic projection
Our experience in the three-dimensional world is more direct. Tangible evidence of three-dimensional design
surrounds and supports us. Form can refer to three-dimensionality itself. An empty 3-D form is volume, while
a solid form is mass. An effective 3D composition balances positive forms (areas of substance) with negative
space. Organic forms visually suggest nature or natural forces, while geometric forms are typically based on
simple volumes. Static forms appear stable and unmoving, while dynamic forms, like figure 9.1, imply
movement. Kinetic forms as in figure 9.3 actually move. For any designer, the form must fulfill a specific
function, or purpose. Mechanical forms, such as belts and gears, create an industrial effect. While the
industrial designer has a different purpose than the sculptor, both use the same basic elements and principles
of design. Orthographic projection is a method of depicting 3-D form on a 2-D surface and represents six
views of a 3-D form (top, bottom, front, back, right, and left sides).
3

4. Degrees of Dimensionality
Relief: Forms project out from a flat surface.
Three-Quarter Works: A physical object designed to be viewed
from the front and sides only.
Freestanding Works: Work that is self-supporting and
designed to be viewed from all sides.
Environmental Works: A space that can be physically entered.
When working in relief, an artist uses a flat backing (such as a wall or ceiling) as a base. There are low- and
high-relief sculptures, and they tend to rely on a frontal viewing position. A three-quarter work, such as figure
9.10, projects more than halfway. We are drawn to view this work from the front and the sides. Rodin’s piece
requires a viewer to walk all the way around it in order to capture its details or nuance of movement.
Environmental Works will be discussed on the next slide.
4

5. Degrees of Dimensionality
Environmental Works: A space that can be
physically entered.
 Installations: An ensemble of images and objects
presented within a three-dimensional environment.
 Earthworks: A large-scale outdoor installation, often
transforming a natural site.
 Site-Specific Artwork: Artwork specifically designed
for and installed in a particular place.
Installations are usually presented indoors, while an earthwork is usually presented outdoors. These works
often require audience participation and we as viewers become emotionally and physically involved in the
artwork. Figure 9.13 evokes a cosmic connection that extends far beyond the walls of a museum or gallery.
Figure 9.14 rests on a bluff overlooking the straits of Gibraltar. The hand is designed to disappear when the
wind blows as the movable panels shift from vertical to horizontal. If moved to another location, this
sculpture would lose much of its meaning.
5

6. Point
A basic mark, such as a dot, pebble, or brushstroke
A simple point can create a dialogue with the surrounding space (like in figure 9.15).
When multiplied, points can produce visual information that can create texture,
space, or movement. 6

7. Line
 A series of adjacent points.
 A connection between points.
 A point in motion.
7

8. Line Quality
 Orientation: horizontal, vertical, or diagonal.
 Direction: implied movement.
 Continuity: increases movement and accentuates
form
Line quality is largely determined by the lines’ orientation, direction, and degree of continuity, as
well as the material used. Based on orientation, horizontals are associated with stability, verticals
with strength, and diagonals are associated with movement. Direction refers to the implied
movement of a line. A line of constant width suggests equal movement in both directions. Varying
line width suggests a sense of space, giving downward thrust and an upward taper. Continuity in
figure 9.22 creates a writhing, tangled line that accentuates the sculpture’s mass.
8

9. Lines
 Actual lines: Lines which are physically present.
 Implied lines: Lines that are suggested by position,
movement or gesture.
 Line networks: The organization of multiple lines.
Actual lines can connect, define, or divide a design. Implied lines are created through mental
rather than physical connections. This can include extended elements that move the eye. A sight
line, as in figure 9.26, creates a telescopic effect. During the winter and summer solstices, the
sculpture is transformed with the alignment of the sun. In figure 9.19, jagged metal lines
interlock with straight lines to form a strong, simple, but versatile form.
9

10. Plane, Volume, and Mass
 Plane: Form that has length and width but minimal
thickness.
 Volume: An enclosed area of three-dimensional
space.
 Mass: A solid three-dimensional form.
Planes can be transparent or opaque, rigid, or flexible, depending on the media. Complex
surfaces and enclosures can be constructed using folded or bent planes. When slotted together,
planes can be used to create a variety of sturdy forms. Pevsner used all of these concepts in one
of the first major plastic sculptures. Volume is important in figure 9.35. The elegant carafe
requires little table space, yet is stable and can be firmly closed. Slotted structures can be used
to protect and separate contents. Weaving, folding, and slotting are some of the strategies used
to enclose space while maintaining structural integrity. Mass can be dense and heavy or light
and porous, but is usually carved or cast. Massive forms tend to suggest stability, power, and
permanence as seen in figure 9.37.
10

11. Space:
Area within or Around an Area of Substance
 Positive and Negative Space: Space and
substance.
 Compression and expansion
 Activated space: A solid three-dimensional form.
 Entering space
11

12. Texture:
Visual or tactile quality
 Degrees of Texture
 Characteristic and Contradictory Textures
 The Implications of Texture
Texture can increase the surface area of an object, add contrast, and enrich our
understanding of the physical and conceptual qualities of any 3-D object. Texture may be
subtle or pronounced. Every material has its own inherent textural properties. When a
material is used in an uncharacteristic way, or when strange textures are added to familiar
forms, we must reappraise both the material and the object it represents. Texture can
enhance or defy our understanding of a form. On a conceptual level, texture can add layers
of meaning.
12

13. Light
 Value and volume
 Striking a surface
 Ambient and directed light
 Light as sculpture
Light can enhance or obscure form, affect our emotions, and even become a sculptural
medium in its own right. A graduated series of highlights and shadows, or values, is
produced whenever light pours across a surface. Product designers are equally aware of
the importance of light. A badly lit form will lack definition and impact. Light is strongly
affected by the substance it strikes. It creates a continuous series of values when it strikes
an opaque surface. It is refracted (or bent) when it strikes a transparent surface, such as
clear plastic or glass. Reflective surfaces, like steel, can bounce light back into space, and
appear to emit its own light. Translucent surfaces, neither fully transparent nor opaque,
can be mysterious and evocative. Each type of surface can be used expressively. Irwin’s
structure consisted of nine cubic rooms defined by delicate walls of translucent cloth. The
translucency of the fabric varied, depending on the amount and location of the light.
Ambient light encompasses an entire space like a sunny afternoon. Directed light is
localized and focused like a spotlight. Many types of sculptural light are used by
contemporary artists and designers. In figure 9.60, Bill Viola used projection and
containment to create a complete illusion. When video images of a man and a woman were
projected from opposite sides of a series of translucent cloths, the images merged revealing
a single, androgynous figure.
13

14. Color:
Hue, Determined by Wavelength
 Value: Lightness or darkness of a color.
 Intensity/saturation: Purity of a color.
 Temperature: Psychological characteristics of a
color.
All three of these concepts (value, intensity/saturation, and temperature) help to determine the legibility and
psychological impact of a color.
14

15. Color
 Degrees of harmony
 Contrast
 Symbolic color
Harmony consists of compatible colors. For a children’s toy, a triadic harmony of red,
yellow, and blue are most inviting. Kita designed chairs with removable seats that can be
color-customized by the buyer. Edmier used disharmony in his portrayal of his pregnant
mother on the day President Kennedy was assassinated. While she seems calm, the colors
and materials suggest an undercurrent of anxiety. Artists and designers like Kita often
use contrasting colors to accentuate the function of a product or to create a distinctive
image. Color is a powerful stimulant for emotions. Segal used the absence of color to
create the white figures that are emotionally distant. Symbolic color is culturally based,
and varies widely. In this mask, the blue represents the sky and the rain that Tlaloc calls
forth to nourish the crops. The contrast between the warm, red clay and sky-blue
increases the impact.
15

16. Time
 Actual time: The location and duration of an actual
temporal event.
 Implied time: Suggested location or duration of an
event.
Viewing time: Extended analysis.
Every object occupies a position in time as well as space.
16