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Truth

A Standard of Critical Thinking
Review
Philosophy: the attempt to
answer, critically, the
epistemological, metaphysical,
and ethical questions.

An Issue Question: is a yes-orno question, and is the way to
formulate questions for the
disputed question method
(quaestio disputata).

Principle of Charity: for any
claim, give it the strongest
possible interpretation.

Principle of Sufficient
Reason: for any claim, give
reason why it is true, or not.

A virtue is an excellence, a
mean between two extremes
called vices.
Review
The Disputed Question Method

yes:

Reasons supporting
the yes answer or
refuting the no answer.
Which side
has the better
reasons?

the question
no:

Reasons supporting
the no answer or
refuting the yes
answer.
Truth
What is the
difference
between the
truth, an honest
mistake, and a
lie?
Truth
Four Types of Truth
Matters of Taste or Opinion
Matters of Convention
Matters of Fact
Matters of Necessity
Truth
Four Types of Truth
Matters of Taste or Opinion
Matters of Convention
Matters of Fact
Matters of Necessity

The ocean is prettier than the desert &
The desert is prettier than the woods.
Truth
Four Types of Truth
Matters of Taste or Opinion
Matters of Convention
Matters of Fact
Matters of Necessity

The desert is prettier than the woods &
The woods are prettier than the ocean.
Truth
Four Types of Truth
Matters of Taste or Opinion
Matters of Convention
Matters of Fact
Matters of Necessity

Can be indexed to a person, place,
time or culture:
According to Alex pizza is better
than pot stickers.

>
Does this exhaust all truths?
Truth
Four Types of Truth
Matters of Taste or Opinion
Matters of Convention
Matters of Fact
Matters of Necessity

Consider
someone who
honestly believes
red means go and
green means stop.
Is his belief true,
or an honest
mistake?
Truth
Four Types of Truth
Matters of Taste or Opinion

Matters of Convention
Matters of Fact
Matters of Necessity

Steering wheels are on the left.
Truth
Four Types of Truth
Matters of Taste or Opinion

Matters of Convention
Matters of Fact
Matters of Necessity

Steering wheels are on the right.
Truth
Four Types of Truth
Matters of Taste or Opinion

Can be indexed to a convention, culture
or society:
According to the music business,
Tupac is gangsta while My Chemical
Romance is emo.

Matters of Convention
Matters of Fact
Matters of Necessity

Does this exhaust all truths?
Truth
Four Types of Truth
Matters of Taste or Opinion

Matters of Convention
Matters of Fact
Matters of Necessity

Consider a world
without people
or conventions,
would water still
boil at the
temperature we
call 212º
Fahrenheit?
Truth
Four Types of Truth
Matters of Taste or Opinion
Matters of Convention

Matters of Fact
Matters of Necessity

The earth is 93 million miles from the sun.
—Some think this fact is contingent—
Truth
Four Types of Truth
Matters of Taste or Opinion
Matters of Convention

Matters of Fact
Matters of Necessity

Water boils at 212º fahrenheit.
—Some think this fact is contingent—
it could have been otherwise
Truth
Four Types of Truth
Matters of Taste or Opinion

Such truths as often expressed ceteris
paribus:
The earth is about 93 million miles
from the sun on average.
Water boils at 212º fahrenheit at
standard barometric pressure.

Matters of Convention

Matters of Fact
Matters of Necessity

Does this exhaust all truths?
Truth
Four Types of Truth
Matters of Taste or Opinion
Matters of Convention

Matters of Fact
Matters of Necessity

Consider a
world with
different
natural laws,
would
1 + 1 = 2?
Truth
Four Types of Truth

∏

=

3.141592...

Matters of Taste or Opinion
π needs to be exact for a circle to be round

Matters of Convention

1
Matters of Fact

Matters of Necessity

+

1

=

2

simple arithmetic is the way things are
—Most think these facts are necessary—
they could not have been otherwise
Truth
Four Types of Truth
Matters of Taste or Opinion

Matters of Convention

Matters of Fact

Matters of Necessity

∏

=

3.141592...
to pursue the truth of a claim

avoid matters of taste, fill in the
indices, and spell out the ceteris
paribus.
Truth is when a claim
matches what is.
Claims are candidates for
truths, such as beliefs stated
in language.
Romeo and Juliette is a
tragedy.

The jellyfish has tentacles.
Eleven is a prime
Drinking milk is healthy.
The music is loud. number.
Same-sex schools are optimal.

Jupiter is bigger than Mars.

Hockey is better than basketball.

Jacqui thinks black is more alluring than pink.

New York is the largest city in the US.

The child looks at the jellyfish.

The Constitution of the United States was adopted on September 17, 1787
Truth
The jellyfish has tentacles.

Why is this true?
Meaning

Intensions— the concept that meanings
are things with properties and in
relations
Truth
How a claim matches what is.
The jellyfish
has tentacles.

Because the thing
designated by the subject
has the property expressed
by the predicate.
The Disputed Question Method
Applied to Truth
Reasons supporting
the yes answer or
refuting the no answer.

yes:
Does the thing designated
by the subject have the
property expressed by the
predicate?
no:

Which side
has the better
reasons?
Reasons supporting
the no answer or
refuting the yes
answer.
to evaluate the truth of a claim

determine whether the thing
designated by the subject has the
property expressed by the
predicate
Truth
The child looks at the
jellyfish.

Why is this true?
Truth
looks at

How a claim matches what is.
the jellyfish.
The child
The things designated by
the nouns stand in the
relation expressed by the
predicate.
The Disputed Question Method
Applied to Truth
Reasons supporting
the yes answer or
refuting the no answer.

yes:
Do the things designated
by the nouns stand in the
relation expressed by the
verb.
no:

Which side
has the better
reasons?
Reasons supporting
the no answer or
refuting the yes
answer.
to evaluate the truth of a claim

determine whether the things
designated by the nouns stand in
the relation expressed by the
verb.
Truth
When a claim matches what is: two forms
subject–Predicate Form

subject–Verb–object Form

((subject) Predicate)

((subject) Verb(object))

designates/expresses

designates/expresses/designates

<<thing> property>

<<thing> relation<thing>>
Truth
When a claim matches what is: subject/Predicate form
The Claim

The sun’s gravity well bends light.

What is: reality

<bending light>

((The sun’s gravity well) bends light.)
((subject) Predicate)

designates/expresses
<<thing> property>

<the sun’s
gravity well>
Truth
When a claim matches what is: subject/Verb/object form
The Claim

What is: reality

The remora is on the shark.

<shark>

((The remora) is on (the shark)).
((subject) Verb(object))

designates/expresses/designates
<<thing> relation<thing>>

<being on>
{
<remora>
Meaning
What is: things with properties and in relations

((subject) Predicate)

((subject) Verb(object))

designates/expresses

designates/expresses/designates

<<thing> property>

<<thing> relation<thing>>

Meanings as intensions
Meaning

Extension— the concept that meanings
are sets and their members
Meaning
Meanings minus things: concepts (or properties and relations)

Meanings
Thing
horse
fast things

Equidae

four legged things
land animal
mammal
Seabiscuit

animal

+

Concept
_____is an Equidae.
_____is four legged.
_____is bigger than_____.
_____is a horse.

_____is fast.

_____is an animal.
_____is faster than_____.
Concepts
General and Specific

A wavelength of light
is an electromagnetic phenomenon.
A color is a wavelength of light.
Red is a color.
The cherries are red.
Concepts
General and Specific
Red as a thing.
A wavelength of light
is an electromagnetic phenomenon.
A color is a wavelength of light.
Red is a color.
The cherries are red.

Red as a concept.
Concepts
General and Specific
Color as a thing.
A wavelength of light
is an electromagnetic phenomenon.
A color is a wavelength of light.
Red is a color.
The cherries are red.

Color as a concept.
Concepts
Linking the General to the Specific

The cherries are red.

more abstract

more concrete
more concrete

Red is a color.

more specific
more specific

A color is a wavelength of light.

more general

A wavelength of light
is an electromagnetic phenomenon.
Concepts
Have Extensions

being a vowel
Properties
as
Concepts

M

X
N
D

C

L

Y

V

B

F
E

A
R
Q

O
W
P

S

I U
H

G
K
J

Z
T
Concepts
Have Extensions

being divisible by two without a remainder
Relations
as
Concepts

9

3
22
1
1
21

32

14
77

27
66

144

13
5
to evaluate the truth of a claim

determine whether the things
designated by the nouns are in
the extension of the verb.
The Disputed Question Method

yes:

Reasons supporting
the yes answer or
refuting the no answer.

Are the things designated
by the nouns are in the
extension of the verb?
no:
45

Which side
has the better
reasons?
Reasons supporting
the no answer or
refuting the yes
answer.
Definitions
Ambiguity: The Problem of Multiple Meanings
Names can be ambiguous:
Jupiter

Mary
Definitions
Ambiguity: The Problem of Multiple Meanings
Other terms can be ambiguous:
fire

green
Ambiguous applies to terms
with more than one
meaning.
Definitions
Vagueness: the Problem of Unclear Extensions
Many terms can be vague:
pile – how many make a pile?

bald – how many hairs
before you stop being bald?
Definitions
Vagueness: the Problem of Unclear Extensions

being a vowel
is y in the
extension of
being a
vowel?

M

X
N
D

C

L

Y

V

B

F
E

A
R
Q

O
W
P

S

I U
H

G
K
J

Z
T
Vague applies to terms with
unclear extensions.
Definitions
Ambiguity and Vagueness

Some Terms Can Be Both
Ambiguous and Vague—
Try to come up with some:
to define a term
give it one clear meaning
Definitions
Claims with terms as things
Definitions
Claims with terms as things
Subject

‘claim’

Predicate

means an assertion open to challenge

term

meaning

<Thing>

<Property>
The Disputed Question Method
Reasons supporting
the yes answer or
refuting the no answer.

yes:
Do the things in the
extension of the term being
defined have the property
expressed by the meaning?
no:

Which side
has the better
reasons?
Reasons supporting
the no answer or
refuting the yes
answer.
Definitions
Stipulating definitions

Make up your own terms that
you might characterize as words
that aren’t in the dictionary but
should be.
Definitions
Stipulating definitions
Sniglets*

Words that don't appear in the dictionary, but should.

Aeroma (ayr oh' ma) - n. The odor emanating from an exercise room after
an aerobics workout.
Aeropalmics (ayr o palm' iks) - n. The study of wind resistance conducted
by holding a cupped hand out the car window.
Anaception (an a sep' shun) - n. The body's ability to actually affect
television reception by moving about the room.
Animalanche: When you kick your stuffed animals in your sleep and they
fall all over you or the floor. (from Kaffit, age 9)
Aquadextrous - adj. Possessing the ability to turn the bathtub faucet on and
off with your toes.
Definitions
Stipulating definitions
Sniglets show that we may prescribe or stipulate a definition for
how a term ought to be used.

The examples from the dictionary show that we may describe or
designate a definition for how a term is actually used.

In this class we will prescribe or stipulate technical definitions
for how terms ought to be used.
Normative definitions
which prescribe or stipulate
how a term ought to be
used.
Normative claims which
prescribe or stipulate how
things ought to be.
Descriptive definitions
which describe or designate
how a term is actually used.
Descriptive claims which
describe or designate how
things actually are.
Law of Assumption—
assume anything at any
time.
Law of Assumption—
assume anything at any
time.
Sniglets are an example of
applying this law.
Law of Assumption—
assume anything at any
time.
Thought experiments are
based on assumptions.
Law of Assumption—
assume anything at any
time.
Critical Thinking has
techniques to reject faulty
assumptions.
define key terms
key terms are terms needed for the
claim to be evaluated as true or
false, they are terms whose
properties or relations need to be
specified or whose extensions need
to be clarified.
define technical terms

technical terms are terms needed for
critical thinking, such as truth,
charity, and reason.
The Standard of Truth—accept
only those claims and
definitions that have the best
reasons for being true.
Assignment
How do you define
contradictions?

Consistency

Read the cases and list the
contradictions you find.
How do you tell when a
conjunction is false?

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Critical Thinking 02 Truth

  • 1. Truth A Standard of Critical Thinking
  • 2. Review Philosophy: the attempt to answer, critically, the epistemological, metaphysical, and ethical questions. An Issue Question: is a yes-orno question, and is the way to formulate questions for the disputed question method (quaestio disputata). Principle of Charity: for any claim, give it the strongest possible interpretation. Principle of Sufficient Reason: for any claim, give reason why it is true, or not. A virtue is an excellence, a mean between two extremes called vices.
  • 3. Review The Disputed Question Method yes: Reasons supporting the yes answer or refuting the no answer. Which side has the better reasons? the question no: Reasons supporting the no answer or refuting the yes answer.
  • 4. Truth What is the difference between the truth, an honest mistake, and a lie?
  • 5. Truth Four Types of Truth Matters of Taste or Opinion Matters of Convention Matters of Fact Matters of Necessity
  • 6. Truth Four Types of Truth Matters of Taste or Opinion Matters of Convention Matters of Fact Matters of Necessity The ocean is prettier than the desert & The desert is prettier than the woods.
  • 7. Truth Four Types of Truth Matters of Taste or Opinion Matters of Convention Matters of Fact Matters of Necessity The desert is prettier than the woods & The woods are prettier than the ocean.
  • 8. Truth Four Types of Truth Matters of Taste or Opinion Matters of Convention Matters of Fact Matters of Necessity Can be indexed to a person, place, time or culture: According to Alex pizza is better than pot stickers. > Does this exhaust all truths?
  • 9. Truth Four Types of Truth Matters of Taste or Opinion Matters of Convention Matters of Fact Matters of Necessity Consider someone who honestly believes red means go and green means stop. Is his belief true, or an honest mistake?
  • 10. Truth Four Types of Truth Matters of Taste or Opinion Matters of Convention Matters of Fact Matters of Necessity Steering wheels are on the left.
  • 11. Truth Four Types of Truth Matters of Taste or Opinion Matters of Convention Matters of Fact Matters of Necessity Steering wheels are on the right.
  • 12. Truth Four Types of Truth Matters of Taste or Opinion Can be indexed to a convention, culture or society: According to the music business, Tupac is gangsta while My Chemical Romance is emo. Matters of Convention Matters of Fact Matters of Necessity Does this exhaust all truths?
  • 13. Truth Four Types of Truth Matters of Taste or Opinion Matters of Convention Matters of Fact Matters of Necessity Consider a world without people or conventions, would water still boil at the temperature we call 212º Fahrenheit?
  • 14. Truth Four Types of Truth Matters of Taste or Opinion Matters of Convention Matters of Fact Matters of Necessity The earth is 93 million miles from the sun. —Some think this fact is contingent—
  • 15. Truth Four Types of Truth Matters of Taste or Opinion Matters of Convention Matters of Fact Matters of Necessity Water boils at 212º fahrenheit. —Some think this fact is contingent— it could have been otherwise
  • 16. Truth Four Types of Truth Matters of Taste or Opinion Such truths as often expressed ceteris paribus: The earth is about 93 million miles from the sun on average. Water boils at 212º fahrenheit at standard barometric pressure. Matters of Convention Matters of Fact Matters of Necessity Does this exhaust all truths?
  • 17. Truth Four Types of Truth Matters of Taste or Opinion Matters of Convention Matters of Fact Matters of Necessity Consider a world with different natural laws, would 1 + 1 = 2?
  • 18. Truth Four Types of Truth ∏ = 3.141592... Matters of Taste or Opinion π needs to be exact for a circle to be round Matters of Convention 1 Matters of Fact Matters of Necessity + 1 = 2 simple arithmetic is the way things are —Most think these facts are necessary— they could not have been otherwise
  • 19. Truth Four Types of Truth Matters of Taste or Opinion Matters of Convention Matters of Fact Matters of Necessity ∏ = 3.141592...
  • 20. to pursue the truth of a claim avoid matters of taste, fill in the indices, and spell out the ceteris paribus.
  • 21. Truth is when a claim matches what is.
  • 22. Claims are candidates for truths, such as beliefs stated in language. Romeo and Juliette is a tragedy. The jellyfish has tentacles. Eleven is a prime Drinking milk is healthy. The music is loud. number. Same-sex schools are optimal. Jupiter is bigger than Mars. Hockey is better than basketball. Jacqui thinks black is more alluring than pink. New York is the largest city in the US. The child looks at the jellyfish. The Constitution of the United States was adopted on September 17, 1787
  • 23. Truth The jellyfish has tentacles. Why is this true?
  • 24. Meaning Intensions— the concept that meanings are things with properties and in relations
  • 25. Truth How a claim matches what is. The jellyfish has tentacles. Because the thing designated by the subject has the property expressed by the predicate.
  • 26. The Disputed Question Method Applied to Truth Reasons supporting the yes answer or refuting the no answer. yes: Does the thing designated by the subject have the property expressed by the predicate? no: Which side has the better reasons? Reasons supporting the no answer or refuting the yes answer.
  • 27. to evaluate the truth of a claim determine whether the thing designated by the subject has the property expressed by the predicate
  • 28. Truth The child looks at the jellyfish. Why is this true?
  • 29. Truth looks at How a claim matches what is. the jellyfish. The child The things designated by the nouns stand in the relation expressed by the predicate.
  • 30. The Disputed Question Method Applied to Truth Reasons supporting the yes answer or refuting the no answer. yes: Do the things designated by the nouns stand in the relation expressed by the verb. no: Which side has the better reasons? Reasons supporting the no answer or refuting the yes answer.
  • 31. to evaluate the truth of a claim determine whether the things designated by the nouns stand in the relation expressed by the verb.
  • 32. Truth When a claim matches what is: two forms subject–Predicate Form subject–Verb–object Form ((subject) Predicate) ((subject) Verb(object)) designates/expresses designates/expresses/designates <<thing> property> <<thing> relation<thing>>
  • 33. Truth When a claim matches what is: subject/Predicate form The Claim The sun’s gravity well bends light. What is: reality <bending light> ((The sun’s gravity well) bends light.) ((subject) Predicate) designates/expresses <<thing> property> <the sun’s gravity well>
  • 34. Truth When a claim matches what is: subject/Verb/object form The Claim What is: reality The remora is on the shark. <shark> ((The remora) is on (the shark)). ((subject) Verb(object)) designates/expresses/designates <<thing> relation<thing>> <being on> { <remora>
  • 35. Meaning What is: things with properties and in relations ((subject) Predicate) ((subject) Verb(object)) designates/expresses designates/expresses/designates <<thing> property> <<thing> relation<thing>> Meanings as intensions
  • 36. Meaning Extension— the concept that meanings are sets and their members
  • 37. Meaning Meanings minus things: concepts (or properties and relations) Meanings Thing horse fast things Equidae four legged things land animal mammal Seabiscuit animal + Concept _____is an Equidae. _____is four legged. _____is bigger than_____. _____is a horse. _____is fast. _____is an animal. _____is faster than_____.
  • 38. Concepts General and Specific A wavelength of light is an electromagnetic phenomenon. A color is a wavelength of light. Red is a color. The cherries are red.
  • 39. Concepts General and Specific Red as a thing. A wavelength of light is an electromagnetic phenomenon. A color is a wavelength of light. Red is a color. The cherries are red. Red as a concept.
  • 40. Concepts General and Specific Color as a thing. A wavelength of light is an electromagnetic phenomenon. A color is a wavelength of light. Red is a color. The cherries are red. Color as a concept.
  • 41. Concepts Linking the General to the Specific The cherries are red. more abstract more concrete more concrete Red is a color. more specific more specific A color is a wavelength of light. more general A wavelength of light is an electromagnetic phenomenon.
  • 42. Concepts Have Extensions being a vowel Properties as Concepts M X N D C L Y V B F E A R Q O W P S I U H G K J Z T
  • 43. Concepts Have Extensions being divisible by two without a remainder Relations as Concepts 9 3 22 1 1 21 32 14 77 27 66 144 13 5
  • 44. to evaluate the truth of a claim determine whether the things designated by the nouns are in the extension of the verb.
  • 45. The Disputed Question Method yes: Reasons supporting the yes answer or refuting the no answer. Are the things designated by the nouns are in the extension of the verb? no: 45 Which side has the better reasons? Reasons supporting the no answer or refuting the yes answer.
  • 46. Definitions Ambiguity: The Problem of Multiple Meanings Names can be ambiguous: Jupiter Mary
  • 47. Definitions Ambiguity: The Problem of Multiple Meanings Other terms can be ambiguous: fire green
  • 48. Ambiguous applies to terms with more than one meaning.
  • 49. Definitions Vagueness: the Problem of Unclear Extensions Many terms can be vague: pile – how many make a pile? bald – how many hairs before you stop being bald?
  • 50. Definitions Vagueness: the Problem of Unclear Extensions being a vowel is y in the extension of being a vowel? M X N D C L Y V B F E A R Q O W P S I U H G K J Z T
  • 51. Vague applies to terms with unclear extensions.
  • 52. Definitions Ambiguity and Vagueness Some Terms Can Be Both Ambiguous and Vague— Try to come up with some:
  • 53. to define a term give it one clear meaning
  • 55. Definitions Claims with terms as things Subject ‘claim’ Predicate means an assertion open to challenge term meaning <Thing> <Property>
  • 56. The Disputed Question Method Reasons supporting the yes answer or refuting the no answer. yes: Do the things in the extension of the term being defined have the property expressed by the meaning? no: Which side has the better reasons? Reasons supporting the no answer or refuting the yes answer.
  • 57. Definitions Stipulating definitions Make up your own terms that you might characterize as words that aren’t in the dictionary but should be.
  • 58. Definitions Stipulating definitions Sniglets* Words that don't appear in the dictionary, but should. Aeroma (ayr oh' ma) - n. The odor emanating from an exercise room after an aerobics workout. Aeropalmics (ayr o palm' iks) - n. The study of wind resistance conducted by holding a cupped hand out the car window. Anaception (an a sep' shun) - n. The body's ability to actually affect television reception by moving about the room. Animalanche: When you kick your stuffed animals in your sleep and they fall all over you or the floor. (from Kaffit, age 9) Aquadextrous - adj. Possessing the ability to turn the bathtub faucet on and off with your toes.
  • 59. Definitions Stipulating definitions Sniglets show that we may prescribe or stipulate a definition for how a term ought to be used. The examples from the dictionary show that we may describe or designate a definition for how a term is actually used. In this class we will prescribe or stipulate technical definitions for how terms ought to be used.
  • 60. Normative definitions which prescribe or stipulate how a term ought to be used.
  • 61. Normative claims which prescribe or stipulate how things ought to be.
  • 62. Descriptive definitions which describe or designate how a term is actually used.
  • 63. Descriptive claims which describe or designate how things actually are.
  • 64. Law of Assumption— assume anything at any time.
  • 65. Law of Assumption— assume anything at any time. Sniglets are an example of applying this law.
  • 66. Law of Assumption— assume anything at any time. Thought experiments are based on assumptions.
  • 67. Law of Assumption— assume anything at any time. Critical Thinking has techniques to reject faulty assumptions.
  • 68. define key terms key terms are terms needed for the claim to be evaluated as true or false, they are terms whose properties or relations need to be specified or whose extensions need to be clarified.
  • 69. define technical terms technical terms are terms needed for critical thinking, such as truth, charity, and reason.
  • 70. The Standard of Truth—accept only those claims and definitions that have the best reasons for being true.
  • 71. Assignment How do you define contradictions? Consistency Read the cases and list the contradictions you find. How do you tell when a conjunction is false?

Editor's Notes

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