Merchandising

PREFACE
As everybody knows, the textile industry is one of the best trades in the world. Especially
the business of manufacturing and exporting knitted garments is very much interesting.
The knit garments can be made in lightweight, at the same time, with more thickness fabrics
for winter seasons. For the summer seasons, they can be made in lighter weight with less
thickness fabrics. Also there is a huge number of fabric varieties can be made in knits. The
speciality of knit garments is the elasticity. Because of these special and comfort qualities,
the requirement for knit garments is huge and forever. Hence manufacturing and exporting
knit garments is definitely a life long profitable business.
At the same time, there is a huge competition among the exporters around the world.
Nowadays, most of the overseas buyers and importers prefer to do business with the
suppliers
- Who are having their own manufacturing factories with huge production capacity,
- Who are quality conscious,
- Who are able to make prompt shipment in right time with right quality,
- Who are adopting local labour laws and code of conduct,
- Who are having thorough knowledge about the business,
- Who are reliable,
- Who are having sound financial strength and
- Who are able to supply the garments on competitive prices?
As the quota restrictions will be removed from January 2005 and due to globalisation, we
expect a huge competition in all the businesses among the sellers and buyers worldwide. In
these years, we have been competing within our country or region. But hereafter we will
have to compete with the other countries. It is going to be very tough. At the same time, it is
not an impossible thing. We can achieve success, if we pay more attention in knowing about
the trade thoroughly.
Actually, I wanted to share my knowledge and experience with my younger brothers who are
also in this same trade. And I wanted to give them the important hints for their easy
understanding and reference. But while I was writing, I decided to write this also for others
who are in this trade and who is interested to know about this trade. Then I decided to write
this elaborately covering all the stages of this trade in detail. Also I have explained the
details in very simple and easy language so that every one who reads this book can
understand easily.
In this book, I have given the costs and costing in Indian Rupees, as it is easy for me. The
readers, other than Indians, will have to convert the costs and costing in their desired
currencies. I believe that the readers will bear with me for this inconvenience.
I am very happy to bring out my knowledge about this trade through this book and I have
real happiness as I am sharing the details with you. Hope all the information in this book will
be useful to you all and hope you will be satisfied. I wish you all success in your business or
career!

INDEX
Subject Heading Page No
GARMENTS 7
GSM 7
YARN
Grey yarn & Prices 8
Mélange yarn & Prices 9
Dyed yarn & Prices 10
Mercerized yarn & Prices 10
Grindle yarn & Prices 12
KNITTING OR FABRICATION 13
Machine gauge 13
Texture 14
Diameter 14
Knitting charges 15
Knitting with Elastan (Spandex) 15
PRE-PROCESSING 17
Procedures to avoid shading 17
PROCESSING
Azo Free Dyestuffs 19
Bleaching (Chlorine & Peroxide) 20
Fabric dyeing – Reactive, Pigment & Discharge dyeing 21
Lab dips 21
Winch dyeing & charges 21
Soft flow dyeing & charges 22
Fabric Mercerizing & charges 23
Fabric Washing & charges 23
FINISHING & COMPACTING
Calendering & charges 24
Compacting & charges 24
Stentering & charges 24
Heat setting & charges 25
Fabric raising & charges 25
PRINTING
All over prints 25
Pigment print (by Rotary machines) & charges 26
Procedures 26
Advantages 27
Risk factors 27
Print in open width form 27
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Water base print 28
Organic dyeing & printing 28
Printing charges 28
Reactive print (by Rotary machines) & charges 28
Procedures 28
Advantages 29
Risk factors 29
Printing charges 29
Discharge print (by Rotary machines) & charges 29
Procedures 30
Advantages 30
Risk factors 30
Some tips 30
Printing charges 30
Chest prints (advantages) 31
Printing charges 31
SPECIAL PROCESSES
Tie & Dye 32
Procedures 33
Advantages 34
Risk factors 34
Tie & Dye charges 34
Batiks 34
Garment dyeing
Procedures 35
Advantages 36
Risk factors 36
Garment dyeing charges 36
EMBROIDERY 36
Applique 36
Acoba 36
Embroidery charges 37
ACCESSORIES 37
Cost of buttons 37
Cost of zippers 37
Cost of twill tapes & ropes 38
Cost of elastics 38
Cost of labels 39
Cost of hangtags 39
Cost of inner boards 40
Cost of tissue papers 40
Cost of safety pins & threads 40
Cost of polybags 40
Cost of master polybags 41
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Cost of hangers & sizers 41
Cost of cartons 41
CMT CHARGES 42
SHIPPING
Delivery terms 43
Sea freight 44
Air freight 47
Calculation of the charges 48
GARMENT COSTING 48
Fabric consumption 49
Trial costing No.1 – Men’s Basic T shirts 50
Fabric consumption of open width fabrics (synthetic) 52
Gross weight & net weight 54
Fabric cost per kg 54
Fabric cost per garment 54
Other charges 55
Cost of trims 55
CMT charges 55
Cost of accessories 55
Cost of garment 55
Price of garment 56
Shipping charges 56
Profit 56
Cost of quota 56
Commission 56
Garment costing 56
Trial costing No.2 – Men’s all over printed Polo shirts 58
Trial costing No.3 – Ladies Night dress 61
Trial costing No.4 – Men’s long pyjamas 62
Trial costing No.5 – Men’s Pique polo shirts 65
Trial costing No.6 – Ladies Yarn stripes T shirts (feeder) 67
Trial costing No.7 – Boys Yarn stripes T shirts (engineering) 69
PAYMENT TERMS 71
L/C terms 71
L/C amendments 73
Importance of B/L & Airway bill 73
Documentation 75
At Sight L/C 76
30days, 60days, 90days L/C 77
Revolving L/C 78
D/P terms 78
D/A terms 80
MARKETING 81
Self study 81
Code of conduct 81
Child labour 82
Safety 82
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Workers’ rights 83
Factory conditions 83
Housing conditions 84
Environment 84
Policies and approaches 84
Product study 86
Market study 86
Customer study 87
Work study 89
Costing & pricing 90
Communication 90
Documentation 92
Purchase 93
Shipping 93
Payment 94
MERCHANDISING 94
Internal & external communication 94
Sampling 95
Development samples or enquiry samples 95
Salesmen samples or promotional samples 95
Proto samples or fit samples 96
Counter samples or reference samples or approval samples 96
Wash test samples 96
Photo samples 97
Fashion show samples 97
Pre-production samples 97
Production samples 97
Shipment samples 98
Lab dips 98
Accessories & trims 99
Preparing internal order sheets 99
Preparing purchase orders 99
Advising and assisting production 100
Advising quality department about quality level 100
Coordination regarding shipping 100
Helping documentation department 100
Taking responsibility for inspections 100
Following shipment 100
PRODUCTION 101
Production planning 101
Work study 101
Standard Minute Value 102
Line balancing 102
Man planning 103
Cost Per Minute 104
Patterning 104
Fabric inspection 104
Line system 105
Cutting 105
Inspection of cut bits 106
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Sewing 106
Trimming 108
Quality checking 108
Packing 109
Sampling 109
QUALITY CONTROL
Quality system 109
Lab tests 112
Washing instructions & symbols 113
Quality procedures 116
Workmanship & general appearance 118
Presentation 119
Inspections 120
Coordination 121
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GARMENTS
There are 2 types of garments. One is a Woven garment. Another is Knitted garments. Shirts,
trousers, sarees, bed spreads, blankets, towels and made ups are Woven. T-shirts,
sweatshirts, undergarments, pyjamas and socks are Knits.
Woven fabrics are made in hand looms, power looms and mill made. Making woven fabrics
is simple. But yarn counts, reed & picks (warp & weft), width should be considered with
more care. The fabric quality is made differently by various methods of finishing and
treating.
Knit fabrics are made in different kinds of knitting machines. According to the structure of
fabrics, they are called by different names. The mainly used fabrics are Jersey, Pique,
Interlock, Rib, French Rib, Flat back rib, Loop knit, Fleece, Polar fleece and Jacquards. The
knit garments can be made in solid dyed or all over printed or yarn striped or jacquard
fabrics.
GSM
GSM is the short form of Grams per Square Metre. GSM is the very most important thing,
which defines the weight of the fabrics of knit garments.
Garment price and quality based on many things like GSM, fabric quality, colours, finishing,
prints, embroidery, style, etc. But GSM is the most important thing to be decided when
confirming the prices between the sellers and buyers.
GSM is the weight of 1mtr x 1mtr fabric. It means 100cm x 100cm = 10,000 sq.cms. It can
be found out by any one of the below ways.
By the weight of 100cm x 100cm fabric bit.
By the weight of 50cm x 50cm fabric bit multiplied by 4.
We must be aware that if we use the smaller size bit, accurate GSM cannot be achieved. The
bigger size of fabric bit is better used to get exact or closer GSM.
If we have fabrics, then we don’t have any problem in finding GSM, as we can cut any
dimension to find GSM. But most of the times, we will have only the garments to find GSM.
And we will have to keep the garment for style, making and other references. So we will be
allowed to cut a small bit from the garments. Hence nowadays, round cutters are used. This
system is used worldwide. With the help of this round cutter, the fabric will be cut into a
small bit.
Then the GSM of the fabric can be found out by multiplying the weight of this round bit by
100. This round bit is to be weighed in an electronic scale with milligram accuracy. As this
bit is very small and as the weight has to be multiplied by 100, the fabric has to be cut very
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sharply to get the exact GSM. Hence the blades of this round cutter are to be sharp and new
to get the exact GSM.
YARN
The thickness of yarn is measured as Counts. Yarns are made in different counts like 2’s,
4’s, 10’s, 16’s, 20’s, 24’s, 25’s, 30’s, 34’s, 36’s, 38’s, 40’s, 60’s, 80’s, 100’s, etc.
We can consider like this. 0’s counts are cotton fiber. 20’s counts yarn is thicker than 24’s
yarn. Likewise 30’s yarn is thicker than 34’s. So when the yarn counts are increasing, the
thickness becomes lesser. We can see, the higher the counts, the lesser the thickness.
Yarn prices based on the thickness. Price of 20’s yarn is lesser than 24’s. Price of 30’s yarn
is lesser than 34’s yarn. We must know, higher the counts, higher the prices.
There are 2 qualities of yarn. Combed and Carded.
Combed is superior quality. The cotton fibers are in different lengths from 0.25 inches to 2.5
inches. According to the technical parameters, the fibers with more length are considered to
be better. These long fibers give more evenness and more strength for yarns. Also the short
fibers are increasing hairiness whereas the long fibers are decreasing hairiness in yarns.
Hence in order to get uniformity in fiber lengths, the short length fibers are to be eliminated
from the long length fibers. For this purpose, a special process is being done. This process is
called ‘Combing’. Because of the same longer length of fibers, the yarn will be very even
with lesser hairiness. Hence after knitting or weaving, the fabric will have very even look.
Carded yarn is inferior in quality. As the above said ‘combing’ process is not being done, the
carded yarn will be made of the fibers in different lengths. Hence the yarn strength will be
lesser than combed yarn. Also carded yarn will have more hairiness and due to this, the
fabric made with carded yarns will have more unevenness.
Because of this extra process, the Combed yarn price is higher than Carded yarn. Also
Combed yarn quality is superior to Carded yarn.
We have to use either Combed or Carded yarn according to buyers’ requirements and to the
suitable price range.
Yarn prices will vary from Mill to Mill due to their different quality standards. As the yarn
prices are fluctuated often and as the yarn is the major cost factor of garments, we have to
pay more attention in yarn quality and its cost.
When we think about the raw materials for knit garments, we can understand that there is
only one raw material, which is, the Yarn. Cost of yarn covers almost 20% to 30% of
garment price. Cost of yarn depends on the quality standards like dyeing absorbency, hand
feel, evenness, strength, raw material, availability, etc.
The processing (dyeing, bleaching and finishing) results will differ according to the yarn
quality. If the yarn contains more lifeless and dull cottons, the dyeing absorbency will be
very less. Also evenness and numbers of naps determine the yarn quality.
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The garment quality is based on the fabric quality; the fabric quality is based on the yarn
quality. Hence the garment’s quality is lying on the yarn quality.
Let us see below the approximate prices for various qualities of 100%Cotton yarns.
Approximate grey yarn prices per kg in Rs:
20’s 24’s 30’s 34’s 40’s
Combed 100 120 130 140 145
Carded 95 110 120 130 140
Mélange yarn:
Mélange means mixture. Mélange yarn means mixture of different shades of yarns.
There are different mélange yarns. They are Grey mélange, Ecru mélange, bleached
mélange, Flax mélange, Colour mélange, etc.
Mélange yarns are generally made with Cotton and Viscose fibers. According to the required
percentage and colour shades, the fibers are mixed together before making into yarn.
Grey Mélange, Ecru Mélange, Bleached Mélange are used widely. These mélange yarns are
generally in the composition of 85%Cotton / 15%Viscose approximately. In these yarns, the
cotton portion will be in light shade and the Viscose portion will be in dark shade.
In colour mélange yarn also, the cotton portion will be in light shade. For light colour
mélange yarn, it is enough to add little percentage of Viscose. But for dark colour mélange
yarns, higher percentage of Viscose to be added to get dark shades. For example, the Dark
Blue colour mélange yarns will have 55%Cotton / 45%Viscose approximately. But we have
to remember that if we use colour mélange yarns with higher percentage of Viscose, the
fabric made with these yarns will have higher shrinkage; also the shrinkage cannot be
controlled. The fabric may have very soft feel and shiny look. But we must think of
shrinkage, which is very important.
Hence, we have to be very cautious of the percentage or composition of Viscose. It is safer
not to use mélange yarns with higher percentage of Viscose, due to higher shrinkage.
To avoid this shrinkage problem, colour mélange yarns made by 100%Cotton fibers are also
used. But this is more expensive than normal colour mélange yarn with Viscose blend. But
as we use 100% Cotton, the shrinkage can be controlled to the acceptable level.
Also there is another way to solve shrinkage problem. Fabric can be made with Ecru
mélange or Grey mélange and can be over dyed to required dark shades. Cost wise, there
will not be big difference between colour mélange yarn and over dyeing. But this method
will solve the shrinkage problem.
Approximate Melange yarn prices per kg in Rs:
For Ecru Mélange & Grey Mélange yarns, Rs.10 to 15 to be added with above prices of
Combed yarns.
For Colour Mélange in Cotton / Viscose blend:
Light colours: Rs.20 to 30 to be added with above prices of Combed yarns.
Medium colours: Rs.30 to 40 to be added with above prices of Combed yarns.
Dark colours: Rs.40 to 50 to be added with above prices of Combed yarns.
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For Colour Mélange in 100% Cotton:
Approximately Rs.70 to 100 to be added (according to the depth of colours) with above
prices of Combed yarns.
Dyed yarn:
For making the stripes and jacquard design fabrics, the dyed yarns are used. Yarns are dyed
by manually and by sophisticated machines. In manual yarn dyeing, we cannot expect the
consistency of shades, yarn strength and better quality. Hence it is always advised to dye the
yarns with the latest machines only.
For yarn dyeing, only combed yarns are used. Also the yarn should have more yarn strength.
It is called Count Strength Product (CSP).
The prices of dyed yarn are based on the counts and colour shades. For easy reference, the
dyed yarn price of 30’s Medium colour will be around Rs.250 per kg. The prices for other
colours will be differed according to the shades.
The prices of other counts are based on the price differences of grey (kora) yarns.
Mercerised Yarn:
This is a very special quality yarn. There is a huge difference between the mercerised yarns
and normal type of cotton yarns. These yarns are made with selective fibers with longer
lengths by thoroughly removing the lifeless, dull and dead cottons.
Mercerised yarns are always in 2 ply, like 60/2, 80/2, 100/2. It means 2 yarns of same counts
have to be twisted together. The minimum counts, which can be doubled, are 50s. So
minimum mercerised yarn can be 50/2. Let us see some important things about these special
yarns.
As the finer cottons are used, the yarn contains more cotton, giving more resistance and silky
feel. These yarns are made exclusively of long fibers, as the combing process removes
shorter fibers.
As these yarns are made in multi-ply (2 ply), they have 10 – 15% more resistance than single
ply yarns. This will give more life to the garments.
After combing and twisting, the yarn will be singed (gassed). By this process, the yarn will
pass rapidly through flames and the superficial hair around the yarn would be eliminated.
Due to more heat, the hairy particles of the yarn will be burnt out. (Now this is called Gassed
Yarn).
Then the yarn is treated with caustic soda under perfectly controlled tension. This process is
called Mercerising. Mercerising is done to strengthen the yarn and to improve luster of yarn.
After mercerising, the yarn will have great strength and greater brightness. Also the yarn will
capture 20% more humidity without getting wet. Further, this mercerising process increases
the resistance of yarn and reduces its becoming dirty. (Now the yarn is called Gassed
Mercerised Yarn).
These yarns do not create allergies to body. Due to its high resistance properties, these yarns
are used for knitwear, underwear and hosiery. The garments made with mercerised yarns can
be washed an infinite number of times without losing luster. Also the garments will not be
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deformed regarding shape. They have exceptional ability to absorb and disperse body
perspiration. So these mercerised yarns are very special due to its special qualities.
If two yarns of 60’s counts are gassed, then we get 2/60’s gassed yarn. Then after
mercerizing, the yarn is called 2/60’s mercerised yarn.
The special features of Gassed Mercerised yarns are
1. Used for making very expensive special garments.
2. Luster and shininess of yarn / fabric / garments.
3. Complete evenness throughout the yarn / fabric / garments.
4. Very less shrinkage of yarn / fabric / garments.
5. Longer life of garments.
After making the fabrics with these Gassed Mercerised yarns, the fabric has to be mercerised
again with caustic soda to get the permanent shiny look. As mercerising is done two times,
one in yarn stage and another in fabric stage, this is called ‘Double Mercerising’.
As the prices of Mercerised yarns are higher than Gassed yarns, to minimise the cost, Gassed
yarns can be used instead of Mercerised yarns. After making the fabrics with Gassed yarns,
fabrics have to be mercerised again. We will get the shiny look on the fabric. But this shiny
look will not be permanent and will be inferior comparing with the fabric used with Gassed
Mercerised yarns. In this method, as the yarn is not mercerised and as only the fabric is
mercerised, it is called ‘Single Mercerising’.
In any case, the fabric has to be mercerised before fabric dyeing.
Also Gassed Mercerised Dyed yarns are available. For yarn striped and jacquard design
fabrics, these dyed yarns are used.
Approximate Gassed (Grey) yarn prices per kg in Rs:
2/60’s: Rs.310
2/74’s: Rs.360
2/80’s: Rs.400
Approximate Gassed Mercerised (Grey) yarn prices per kg in Rs:
2/60’s: Rs.380
2/74’s: Rs.440
2/80’s: Rs.490
Approximate Gassed Mercerised Dyed yarn prices per kg in Rs:
2/60’s: Light colours: Rs.480
Medium colours: Rs.520
Dark colours: Rs.550
2/74’s: Rs.60 to be added with the above prices of 2/60’s dyed yarn.
2/80’s: Rs.100 to be added with the above prices of 2/60’s dyed yarn.
Grindle Yarns:
These yarns are also called ‘Twisted Yarns’. Two yarns of same counts but in different
colours are twisted together. Between these 2 colours, one colour will be in lighter shade and
the other will be in darker shade. After the twisting, the yarn will be in a different mixing
shade. We must be sure of these yarns are in same counts and have same yarn strength. Also
when they are being twisted together, the number of twists per inch (usually 14) should be
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even for the full length of yarn. If the twisting is not done properly, then we will face
problems during knitting.
The prices of grindle yarns depend on the colours, counts, etc. The above prices can be
referred to get approximate idea.
KNITTING OR FABRICATION
There are 2 types of knitting. One is Circular knitting (Tubular knit). Another is Flat
knitting. Circular knit is used to knit body fabrics. Flat knit is used to knit Collars & Cuffs.
There is another type of flat knit machines, which are used to make Sweaters (Tricot
garments). With these machines, the body fabrics, sleeves and necks are being made. And
they are joining together with the help of linking machines. We have to note that the
attachments of these parts are done with the main yarns. No separate sewing threads are used
for joining. Buyers use to call these garments as Knitted garments or Tricot garments or
Sweaters. Mostly acrylic and wool yarns are used. Lower counts like 2’s, 4’s, 6’s, etc are
used.
T-shirts, polo shirts are also called knitted garments. As the body, sleeves, collars, cuffs are
cut separately and joined together, some buyers use to call these garments as ‘Cut & Sewn
Garments’.
When we discuss about Knit garments, there are many things to be taken care of. Yarn
counts, suitable knitting machines, machine gauge, machine diameter, numbers of feeders,
grey fabric GSM, loop length, grey fabric diameter, etc should be well considered before
start knitting.
The fabric before processing is called Greige fabric. It is also called Grey fabric (kora
fabric).
Machine Gauge:
There are different types of fabric structure like Jersey, Pique, Interlock, Rib, French rib
(loop knit), Flat back rib, Fleece, Herring bone, etc.
Knitting machines are available in different gauges. 2GG, 3GG, 4GG, 5GG, 7GG machines
are used for sweater knitting (Tricot knit).
Fabrics like Jersey, Pique, Rib and Interlock are knitted on 14GG, 16GG, 18GG, 20GG,
24GG, 26GG, 28GG, and 30GG suitably. The fabric is knitted according to the cam design.
If we need any different type of knitting, the cams in cylinder and dial should be adjusted
accordingly.
The number of needles per inch means Gauge. For example, 24GG machine will have 24
needles per inch; 30GG machine will have 30 needles per inch. If we need more needles per
inch, we have to go for higher gauge machine.
As the higher Gauge machines are having more needles per inch, the fabric will be knitted
tightly. And the fabric will have lesser shrinkage and better feeling.
According to the machine gauge, the yarn counts to be selected and used. If the Gauge is
higher, the thinner yarn can be used. If the Gauge is lesser, the thicker yarn can be used.
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When making knitting program, our aim must be to make tight knitting with better fabric
feeling and less shrinkage. Accordingly we must plan to use the higher yarn counts and
higher gauge knitting machines. So the yarn count selection is more important according to
the selected Gauge machine. Also the machine Gauge to be selected according to the
selected yarn count.
For example, for Jersey fabric, we can achieve 140GSM either by using 34’s yarn & 26GG
machine or by using 30’s yarn & 24GG machine. To get better quality fabric, it is preferable
to use 34’s yarn & 26GG machine.
Texture:
As warp and weft are making woven fabrics, there are 2 things making the knit fabric. They
are Wales and Course. Wales is the vertical yarn. Course is the horizontal yarn.
The machine gauge fixes Wales’s lines. This cannot be changed. Adjusting in the machine
can alter coarse lines. This is called Texture.
By adjusting this texture, the required fabric GSM (Grey or kora) can be achieved.
Diameter:
As the knit fabrics are made in tubular form, the patterns for making garments are being
made according to tubular fabrics. Hence the diameter of fabric is very important.
When we talk about Diameter, we must take care of various diameters. They are diameter of
the machine, diameter of the grey fabric, diameter of the processed fabric and diameter of
the finished fabric. These diameters will not be the same. Our ultimate aim is to get the
required diameter of the finished fabric according to the patterns. So we have to check these
diameters carefully at every stage.
Diameter of the machine will not be changed. But after knitting, each type of fabric will be
in different diameters. For example, if Jersey fabric is knitted in 30” diameter machine, the
grey fabric diameter will be plus or minus 1”. That is, between 29” and 31”. But if Pique
fabric is knitted in 30” diameter machine, the grey fabric diameter will be 37”. Likewise,
each type of grey fabric will be in different diameter according to the knitting method and
nature of the fabric design.
During processing, the fabrics will be soaked in dyes for more than 5 hours. So the fabric
will shrink both in widthwise and lengthwise depends on fabric texture. And the diameter
will be changed accordingly. If the fabric is knitted with lower texture, the fabric will grow
in widthwise during processing. Hence the diameter will be increased enormously. If the
fabric is knitted tightly by using higher yarn counts, higher gauge machines and with higher
texture, we can minimise this difference.
After processing also, each type of fabric will be in different diameter. For example, if the
grey fabric diameter of Jersey is 30”, then the diameter after processing will be 29”. But if
the grey diameter of Pique is 37”, then the diameter after processing will be 34”.
Diameter of the finished fabric should be suitable for patterns and for cutting. If this
diameter is smaller than the pattern, then we cannot cut the fabric as per our program. If this
diameter is larger than the pattern, then there will be more fabric wastage. If there are 1 or 2
inches difference, it can be corrected during compacting or other finishing process.
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So the fixing of finished fabric diameter is based on pattern requirements. Finished diameter
is based on processed diameter; processed diameter is based on grey diameter; grey diameter
is based on machine diameter; machine diameter is based on the fabric nature. Hence the
selection of machine diameter is very important to get required finished fabric diameter.
Also as we have seen earlier, we have to pay more attention to fix the yarn counts, machine
gauge, texture and grey GSM.
Approximate knitting charges per kg in Rs.:
Jersey 8
Pique 15
Interlock 18
1x1 rib 15
Jersey with Lycra 25
Pique with Lycra 25
Rib with Lycra 30
Feeder stripes Jersey 12
Feeder stripes Pique 18
Feeder stripes Interlock 20
Feeder stripes rib 15
Engg stripes Jersey 40-60
Engg stripes Pique 50-70
Engg stripes Interlock 40-60
Engg stripes Rib 110-130
Regarding yarn stripes, if the repeat width of stripes is below 3.5cms, it can be knitted in
normal machines. Colour yarns should be feed in according to the stripes. As the yarn
feeders adjust the stripes, it is called ‘Feeder stripes’. We have to note that a maximum of
3.5cms of repeat width of stripes is possible to knit with the ordinary machines.
If the repeat width is more than 3.5cms, then it is called ‘Engineering stripes’ or ‘Auto
stripes’. These engineering stripes can be knitted with special kind of machines. The knitting
charges for these engineering stripes are very higher.
KNITTING WITH ELASTAN (SPANDEX):
Knitting of 100%Cotton yarn is easy. As poly cotton yarns are blended in fiber stage itself,
we get the single yarn with blends. Hence knitting of these blended yarns is also easy.
When we knit the fabrics with different quality of yarns together, we have to be careful of
their counts. Generally the synthetic yarns like polyester, viscose, polyamide (nylon), and
elastan (spandex) are measured in Denier. But the cotton yarns are measured in Counts. We
need the thickness of both yarns to be the same. So when we knit cotton yarns with these
synthetic yarns, we must be sure of using the suitable denier yarn.
To select suitable denier, we can use following conversion formula.
Counts = 5315
Denier
Denier = 5315
Counts
Let us see an example of knitting Cotton/Lycra (Elastan) fabric. If we use 38’s counts of
cotton yarn, then we have to use same 38’s counts of Lycra yarn. Then only the knitting will
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be even. In order to select the suitable denier, we use the above formula. We see that 140
Denier is equal to 38’s counts. So, 140-denier Lycra yarn is to be used for this fabric.
Also, during knitting, the number of feeders of Lycra yarn is to be decided according to the
required percentage of Lycra. This is the same procedure for the other synthetic yarns too.
PRE-PROCESSING
We are making the fabric, wishing to get the finished fabric with following qualities.
- GSM (as per Purchase Order)
- Diameter (as per Pattern)
- Shrinkage (as per the tolerance – normally below 5%)
- Colour (shade, fastness as per approval)
- Fabric feeling (as per requirement)
To fulfill all these important things, we have to check following things before knitting.
- GSM – during knitting, before processing, after processing, before finishing or
compacting, after compacting (on cutting table).
- Diameter – machine diameter, before processing, after processing, before finishing
or compacting, after compacting (on cutting table).
- Shrinkage – before compacting and after compacting.
- Colour – shade and fastness before and after finishing.
- Fabric feeling – should be controlled during knitting, processing and compacting.
We must be aware the fact that even if we use the same mill yarn, same knitting machine,
same dyeing factory and same finishing process, we will not get the same result every time.
For example, even if we use the same mill yarn but with different yarn lots, we will get
different results. Likewise we will get different results due to knitting machine make, gauge,
processing methods, qualities of dyes & chemicals, processing timing, processing water
quality, compacting method & temperature, etc. So it is not possible to define the entire
system with 100% conformity. Hence regarding knitted fabrics, we always expect different
results every time and every time we must be prepared for avoiding the differences or
deviations.
Due to the above reasons, after processing, there will be shade variations between lots. If we
take more care during processing, these variations can be limited. But we cannot avoid shade
variations between lots 100%.
At the same time, we must be aware that there should not be shade variation between body,
sleeves, collar and cuffs in one garment. Also there should not be shade variation between
garments of different sizes, which are packed in one carton. This is very important.
Even though the buyer knows that the lot to lot shade variations can not be avoided 100%,
they will expect at least no shading between garments packed in one carton.
To avoid shade variations, we have to follow the following procedures.
To avoid shading between body, sleeves, collar, cuffs, rib, rope, twill tape:
1. Grey fabrics for body, sleeves and grey collars, cuffs, rib, rope, twill tape should be
knitted with same mill yarn from the same yarn lot.
2. Fabric for body, sleeves, collar, cuffs, etc., should be dyed or processed in one lot
only.
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3. Body and sleeves should be cut in the same fabric roll. Fabric program should be
made accordingly. (If this is not possible or not suitable due to more wastage or any
other reason and if the body and sleeve fabrics are in different diameters, they should
be dyed or processed as one lot only).
4. All the parts of one garment (body, sleeves, collars, cuffs, pockets, patches, ribs, etc)
should be numbered during cutting. Numberings should be followed till the full
garment is made.
To avoid shading between different sizes of garments in one carton:
1. We must study the packing methods clearly. If the packing is ‘assorted sizes’ in one
carton, before sending the fabrics for processing, each lot to be made according to
assorted sizes. Number of assortments of one lot is to be decided according to the
dyeing vessel capacity.
2. If the packing is Solid size in one carton, before sending the fabrics for processing
each lot to be made with the Size wise fabrics. Weight of the fabric of one lot is to be
decided according to the dyeing vessel capacity.
3. Collars, cuffs, ribs, twill tapes, ropes, etc should be added in to the above fabric lot,
so that all necessary fabrics and accessories are being dyed at one time.
To avoid shading between fabric lots:
1. Water temperature, processing time, quantity of water and quality of dyestuffs are the
defining factors of dyeing. These should be consistent to get even dyeing and
consistency in shades. As it is not possible in traditional manual winch dyeing, we
should dye the fabrics only with latest soft flow dyeing machines.
2. Same mill yarn from the same yarn lot to be used.
3. When we have to use yarn from different lots, the grey fabrics from one yarn lot
should be sent for processing separately. Fabrics from the second lot should be sent
separately. Mixing of lots should be avoided.
4. Approved lab dips should be followed for the 1st
fabric lot ONLY.
5. When the colour shade in the first fabric lot is approved, the same shade to be
followed for the second and further lots too. First lot cutting swatch to be followed
for further lots. This cutting swatch to be sent along with the other grey fabrics lots
when they are sent for processing.
6. Once 1st
lot is approved, only this lot cutting to be referred and followed for further
lots. Lab dips should not be referred. This is very important.
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PROCESSING
AZO DYESTUFFS:
When we discuss about processing, we must be aware of Azo dyestuffs. In April 1996,
German Government had banned import of consumer products using one or more of
carcinogenic aromatic amines in textile and leather articles, which have the possibility of
direct contacts with the human skin. They are clothing, bedding, towels, hairpieces, wigs,
hats, diapers and other sanitary items, footwear, gloves, watch straps, belts, purses, wallets,
briefcases, chair covers and toys.
Nowadays other developed countries are also following the ban of azo dyestuffs. Following
are the 24 banned azo dyestuffs.
4-Aminobiphenyl,
Benzedrine,
4-Chloro-o-toluidine,
2-Naphthylamine,
o-aminoazotoluene,
2-Amino-4-nitorotoluene,
P-Chloroaniline,
2,4-Diaminoanisole,
4,4’-Diaminobihenylmethane,
3,3’-dichlorobenzidine,
3,3’-Dimethozybenzidine,
3,3’-Dimethylbenzidine,
3,3’-Dimethyl-4,4’-diaminobiphenylmethane,
P-Cresidine,
4,4’-Methylene-bis-(2-chloroaniline),
4,4’-Oxydianiline,
4,4’-Thiodianiline,
O-Toluidine,
2,4-Toluylendiamine,
2,4,5-Trimethylaniline,
O-Anisidine,
P-Aminoazobenzene,
2,4-Xylidine,
2,6-Xylidine.
If the garment supplied by a supplier, is tested and proved that it contains any of these
banned dyestuffs, the buyer has the right to reject the goods or even to sue a case against the
supplier for not following the regulations. Hence, even if the buyer has not specifically
mentioned about this, we have to use Azo Free dyestuffs only.
Since the dyeing factory cannot determine whether the dyestuff is azo or azo-free, it is safer
to get the confirmation from the dyestuff manufacturer. It is important to note that different
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dyestuffs with the same colour index number can produce different results due to differences
in the purity of the raw materials and contamination by impurities.
Some buyers will ask their suppliers to certify that they are not using azo dyestuffs. In this
case, before certifying to buyers, it is safer for the supplier to get the certificate from their
dyeing factories and their dyestuff suppliers.
Some buyers will ask their suppliers to submit lab test reports for azo free dyestuffs for each
colour of the garments they are producing for them. The lab test charges for azo dyestuffs
are very high. It is approximately Rs.7, 000 per colour.
BLEACHING:
There are 2 qualities of bleaching. One is Chlorine Bleach. Another is Peroxide Bleach.
Chlorine Bleach:
Chlorine bleach is cost wise cheaper and lesser in quality. It will have lesser whiteness. If a
garment is made of Chlorine bleached fabric, the whiteness will vanish after washes and will
become pale white or Offwhite. The fabric will have Chlorine smell. Also it will give
irritation to body. Above all, as Chlorine contains azo dyestuffs, it is banned in most of the
countries.
Chlorine bleaching charge: By open winch or open tub: Rs.10 – 12 / kg.
Peroxide Bleach:
So the other option is Peroxide bleach. Any bright shades like Milk white; Snow white can
be achieved by Peroxide bleach. The brightness will be forever even after many washes of
garments. There will not be any smell. Also it will not give irritation to body.
Peroxide bleaching can be done in 3 methods. They are by using open winches, soft flow
machines and continuous bleaching machines.
Winch bleach is the traditional method. Peroxide bleach can be made only with hot water.
Hence we have to be sure that the bleaching factory is having boiler and whether they are
using boiling water for our job.
Some bleaching factories will say that they will use Peroxide bleach in winches. But they
will use Chlorine bleach and will do Peroxide coating to minimise their cost. But this is not
acceptable. If we smell the fabric deeply, we can smell Chlorine. If this fabric tested for azo
contents, the result will show that it contains azo dyestuffs. Also after ironed and packed the
garments into a polybag and kept for some time, we can smell Chlorine immediately after
removing and smelling the garments from the polybag.
So it is better to bleach the fabrics either by soft flow machines or by continuous bleaching
machines. By using Continuous bleaching machine, we can get consistent Whiteness
throughout the entire lots.
Peroxide White charge if made by winches: Approx Rs.22 – 24 / kg depending on shade.
Peroxide White charge if made by continuous bleaching machines: Approx Rs.30–35/kg.
FABRIC DYEING:
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There are 3 qualities of dyeing. They are Reactive dyeing, Pigment dyeing and Discharge
dyeing.
1. Reactive dyeing:
When we call dyeing, it means Reactive dyeing only. This is the normal dyeing. The dyes
used for dyeing are called Reactive Dyes. As we discussed above, only Azo Free dyes
should be used.
2. Pigment dyeing:
In this type of dyeing, the Pigment dyes are to be used. Pigment dyeing is used when the
fabric is to be stone washed or acid washed or enzyme washed (like Jeans). Pigment dyes are
mainly used for printing. Generally this pigment dyeing is made in Jigger machines. By
using these dyes in dyeing, the fabric will be very stiff, as if the fabric is pigment printed on
both sides 100%. After this, the fabrics will be washed in special soft flow machines for
getting special effects like stone wash, acid wash, enzyme wash, etc.
Nowadays, there are advanced soft flow machines with simplified methods from which we
get better results. We will have more discussions on this, in the chapter ‘Garment Dyeing’.
3. Discharge dyeing:
For this type of dyeing, Discharge dyes are to be used. Some dyes are having the quality of
discharge. Discharge dyeing is required only when the fabric is to be Discharge printed. We
will discuss about this later when we discuss about ‘Discharge printing’.
LAB DIPS:
Before proceeding dyeing, the Lab dips are made in the laboratory. 2 to 4 lab dips are made
similar to the required shade. According to the approved lab dip, bulk dyeing will be done.
As each yarn will have different dyeing absorbency and as each fabric type will have
different dyeing absorbency, the lab dips should be made in the same fabric, which we want
to dye the particular colour. Then only we will get required results. For example, if we want
to dye Jersey fabric for bulk, the lab dips should be done in the same Jersey fabric bits. Even,
other Jersey fabric, who is made with different yarn, should not be used.
When lab dips are made, the combination of dyes & chemicals are noted well in the books.
This combination is called Recipe. The same combination is used in bulk dyeing
proportionately.
There are 2 types of dyeing. One is Winch dyeing. Another is Soft flow dyeing.
WINCH DYEING:
Winch dyeing is a traditional method of dyeing. Fabric rolls will be joined together by
knotting them. During dyeing, the fabrics will roll on winches. When a motor rotates the
winch, dipping in diluted dyes will roll the fabrics. The dyes are diluted with hot boiled
water and kept in the bottom of the vessel. After checking whether the required shade is
attained, fabrics will be removed from the winches.
The dyeing process will take different timings for different colours. Some dark colours will
take approximately 8 hours. As the winch is kept opened, the temperature of water will not
be consistent. Temperature in the 4th
or 5th
hour will not be the same in the 1st
hour. It will be
much lesser. Hence the absorbency of colour will not be even. Also as the fabric rolled in
folded form on winches, the colour patches will be occurred on the fabrics.
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For the regular shades, the dyes are available in suitable shades. These dyes are called ‘direct
dyes’.
For some shades, the direct dyes will not be available. In these cases, dyes of some 2 or 3
colours are to be mixed proportionately to get the required shades. These are called
‘Combination colours’. Each dye will have different solubility and reactivity. When 2 or 3
different dyes are mixed together, fabric may not absorb some colours properly. Due to this,
the particular colour will not have the total required shade and colour fastness.
The dyeing charges by open winches: Light colours: 20 – 25
Medium colours: 30 – 40
Dark colours: 45 – 50
Darkest colours: 55- 60
Royal: 70 – 80
SOFT FLOW DYEING:
It is also called Jet dyeing or Closed Winch dyeing. These types of machines are used in
recent years. It is a closed winch. Temperature, dyes & water capacity, fabric capacity,
timing, everything is computerised. Due to this, the temperature is consistent. Hence the
fabric absorbs the dyes evenly. Also the colourfastness will be better.
Though soft flow dyeing is more expensive than winch dyeing, this is the best way to get
required shade exactly with better colourfastness. There will not be any colour patches. Also
the fabric wastage will be lesser than open winch dyeing. In open winch dyeing, the fabric
rolls are joined by tying the ends. So after dyeing, the fabric wastage will be more due to the
rejection of these roll ends. They have to be cut and rejected. But in soft flow dyeing, as the
fabric rolls are joined with over lock stitches, the fabric wastages can be reduced
considerably.
Shades and charges:
There are too many shades in each colour. It is difficult to give exact definition for light
colours or dark colours by their names. Anyhow let us have a rough idea about colours.
Offwhite, Light Grey, Lt Blue, Lt Pink, Lt Yellow, Lt Orange, Lt Green, etc are Light
colours.
Blue, Orange, Blue, Light Red, Yellow, Medium Green, Grey, etc are Medium colours.
Navy, Dark Blue, Green, Brown, etc are Dark colours.
Black, Red, Olive Green, Military Green, Dark Navy, etc are the darkest colours.
The costliest colour is Royal. (It is too expensive, as the direct dyes for Royal to be used to
get the brightness. Sometimes if the shade is lighter and if the customer cooperates to reduce
the cost, the shade can be achieved with the combination of Blue, Black, Red, etc. By these
colours, we can get similar shade; but it will have poor colourfastness. So it is advisable to
use direct dyes only).
For the darker shades more dyestuffs are to be used. Due to this and due to more processing
time, the dyeing charges for darker shades are higher than the lighter shades.
The dyeing charges by soft flow machines: Light colours: 30 – 40
Medium colours: 40 - 50
Dark colours: 60 – 70
Darkest colours: 70 - 80
Royal: 90 – 100
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FABRIC MERCERISING:
This is a special process. The fabrics made by gassed yarns or gassed mercerised yarns have
to be mercerised to strengthen the fabric and to get permanent shiny look and brightness.
The fabric will be treated with caustic soda under perfectly controlled tension. After this
mercerising process the fabric will become tight and the diameter of the fabric will be much
reduced. So it is advisable to knit the fabrics with the knitting machine not less than 26”
diameter.
Due to this mercerising, the fabric gets not only very good strength and improved luster; but
also improved colour absorbency. Hence the consumption of dyestuffs and processing time
are reduced. Due to this, the dyeing cost will be reduced by 15 to 20% from the normal
dyeing charges.
To do the fabric mercerising, the fabric is not needed to be made by gassed or mercerised
yarns. Any normal fabric also can be mercerised to strengthen the fabric and to improve
luster. Though we have to bear with the mercerising charges, we can get 15 to 20%
reduction in dyeing charges, if mercerising and dyeing is done in the same processing mill.
The dyeing quality will vary depending on mercerising quality. If the mercerising is not been
done properly, the dyeing quality will be inferior. Hence it is always safer to do the
mercerising and dyeing in the same processing mill under same roof.
Approximate fabric mercerising charge is Rs.45 to 50 per kg. We can get some reduction
from the mill, if we do both mercerising and dyeing together with them.
FABRIC WASHING:
We make some fabrics with dyed yarn or mélange yarn. But after knitting, these fabrics have
to be washed with soft cold water to remove the smell and dusts of yarn. Also to avoid the
handling stains, these fabrics are to be washed.
Not only the fabrics. The collars, ribs, twill tapes, ropes made with dyed yarns or mélange
yarns also to be washed to avoid stains, smell and to get softer hand feel.
The washing charge is normally Rs.5 per kg.
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FINISHING & COMPACTING
CALENDERING:
After bleaching or dyeing or washing and after drying, the fabrics will have wrinkles and
creases. To remove these wrinkles, the fabric is to be ironed to enable easy cutting.
Technically we call this ironing method as Calendering. This is done with steam pressure to
get smooth, glossy finish of fabric. Also this will help the fabric to maintain its diameter.
Steam calendering charge: Rs.1.50 to 2.50 / kg.
COMPACTING:
Nowadays it is not enough to calender the fabrics. When we calender the fabrics, it will only
remove wrinkles and will maintain the diameter. But it will not control the shrinkage or
fabric weight (GSM). There are no facilities in calendering machines. As the shrinkage and
GSM are important things, we have to compact the fabrics with the latest compacting
machines.
With these compacting machines, we can adjust following things.
1. Diameter.
2. GSM.
3. Shrinkage.
But all these 3 things cannot be adjusted simultaneously. We can adjust either diameter or
GSM or shrinkage. We must be aware of this important fact. We can get better result from
these compacting machines, if we use this machine for only controlling shrinkage. To get
required GSM and finishing diameter, we must take more and more care during yarn
selection and knitting. If we failed to take preliminary steps for GSM and diameter, we will
be in trouble in the end while finishing the fabrics. If we try to achieve these 3 things
together, nothing can be done.
Charges for Tubular compacting: Rs.6 per kg.
STENTERING:
The compacting machines are used to compact the knit fabrics in tubular form. Some times,
we will have to compact the fabric in open width form. These open width fabrics can be
compacted by Open Width compacting machines or Stenter machines.
Generally these Stenter machines are used for compacting woven fabrics. From these
machines, we can get the same good result for knit fabrics also.
Charges for Open width compacting: Rs.12 – 15 per kg.
Charges for Open width Stendering: Rs.15 – 20 per kg.
HEAT SETTING:
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The 100% Cotton fabrics are normally very soft, as cotton is the natural fiber. But if the
fabric is made or blended with synthetic or artificial fibers like Polyester, Polyamide
(Nylon), Elastan (Spandex), Acrylic, Viscose, etc, the fabric will be very stiff and hard.
These fabrics cannot be used with these stiffness and hardness. Hence to get softer hand feel
and flexibility, these blended fabrics have to be Heat Set.
Heat set can be done both in open width and tubular form. But to get better result, it is better
to do heat set in open width form.
As 100% Cotton fabrics don’t need this heat set process, they can be used for cutting in
tubular form itself. But for the blended fabrics, the heat set process is a must. So generally
the blended fabrics and synthetic fabrics are finished in open width form only.
Charges for Heat set: Rs.25 – 30 per kg.
FABRIC RAISING OR BRUSHING:
Some fabrics need to be raised on one side or both sides. Especially, the heavy fabrics made
for winter seasons, require to be raised to get softer hand feel or to get rich look. Loop knit
(French rib), fleece, and flat back rib fabrics are usually raised. After dyeing and after
drying, the fabric is to be raised by a suitable machine.
The raising is to be done to the same direction of the fabric. If the fabric is raised in the
opposite direction of fabric, the raising effect will not be good and it will damage the fabric
structure.
Charges for one side raising: Rs.10 per kg.
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PRINTING
There are two different prints. They are all over prints and chest prints.
ALL OVER PRINTS:
All over prints can be made both manually (table prints) and by machines. Fabrics are spread
on long tables and printed manually with screens. Printing is done one colour by one colour.
We can print the second colour, only after drying the 1st
colour. As the fabric has to dry after
printing of each colour, it will take more time for multi colour printing. The print quality
depends on the printer’s stroke. If the stroke of the printer differs, the print quality will
differ. Hence the application of colours will not be even and consistent. Also the registration
(placement) of all colours will not be perfect.
Hence nowadays-Rotary machines are used for all over printing. Though it is little expensive
than manual table printing, we have many advantages in rotary printing. They are as follows.
1. Quick and time saving.
2. Up to 10 colour designs can be printed simultaneously.
3. Perfect registration (placement).
4. Consistent printing colours and quality.
5. Immediate drying.
6. Less wastage.
For printing in Rotary machines, tubular screens are to be made for each colour. The films
and screens are to be made with great care to get perfect accuracy, seating and registration.
Some times, we will have to make the films with the help of computers. Even though it will
cost more, we can achieve perfection in printing.
Rotary screens are in tubular form. The diameter of the screen is 64.1cms. Hence the repeat
of print will be 64.1cms. To avoid visibility of the repeat joint after printing, more care to be
taken while making films, BLD (Bright Light Duplicating) and engraving screens. Extra care
to be taken for geometric designs like multi checks with inner designs. Though the films are
made with computer, screens are also to be made accurately with more attention not showing
the repeat joints in screens.
There are some machines available to print with 90cms screen width. These machines are
very rare in use.
We have to be sure that softener should not be added during dyeing or bleaching. If the
softener is added, the fabric will have shiny look (like waxing). Due to this, the fixing of
printing on fabric will be affected. Then the printing will look blurred. When we drop one or
two drops of water on fabric, if the fabric absorbs the water, it means the fabric does not
have softener. If the fabric does not absorb the water, it means the fabric has softener. If the
fabric has softener, it should be removed from the fabric by washing the fabric again.
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Also before printing, we have to be sure that the fabric is dried completely. If the fabric is
even slightly wet, when we print on rotary printing in tubular form, the first side printing
will be in lighter shades. After printing, as the continuous process, the fabric will get
completely dried. So when we print the same fabric on the second side, the print will be
better than on the first side. So there will be difference between both sides in shades and
registration. This will create major problem in garmenting. Hence the fabric is to be
completely dried before printing.
Pigment prints, Reactive prints and Discharge prints can be printed with Rotary machines.
PIGMENT PRINTING (BY ROTARY MACHINE):
This is the regular print. For this, Pigment dyes (inks) are used. This can be printed either in
tubular form or in open width form.
Procedure to print in tubular form:
1. Grey fabric to be bleached or light colour dyed.
2. Softener should not be added in dyeing.
3. Fabrics must be absolutely dry before printing.
4. Required printing colours are mixed with the turpentine base, which is a petroleum
product. Due to the higher cost and scarcity of turpentine, kerosene is used as an
alternate.
5. Fabric is printed according to the designs and colours of each screen. As the
continuous process, the printed fabric will go through the drier machine. Then the
printed fabric will come out in thoroughly dried form.
6. Then the fabric is to be rolled on the other side and the other side is to be printed.
7. As the petroleum product (turpentine or kerosene) is used as the base, after the print,
the fabric will have the smell of this base fluid. Hence after printing on both sides,
the fabric should be cured to remove the smell from the fabric.
8. If the print has more than 20% print coverage or printed with dark colours, the fabric
is to be washed after curing. This wash will help for better fixation of colours; avoid
smell, better shrinkage and better colourfastness. If we need softer hand feel after
printing, the printed fabric can be enzyme washed.
9. Then, as the normal procedure, the fabric is to be compacted to control shrinkage and
to remove wrinkles and creases. But some print designs may lose its shape after
compacting. For example, a square design may change into a rectangle; a round
design may change into an oval shape. The fabric washing will help to avoid these
problems and to retain the print designs.
Advantages:
1. Cheaper cost.
2. Any shade is possible.
3. Selection or mixing colours are easier.
4. Print shades can be checked and corrected during printing.
5. Printing colours will be the same before and after printing.
6. Can be printed in tubular form and open width form.
7. Less process after printing.
Risk factors:
1. Will have lesser colourfastness especially in rubbing and sun light.
2. Print smell.
3. Rough hand feel.
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Print in open width form:
If we print the fabric in tubular form, we will get shade variation of printing colours between
both sides. Also at least 1” fabric on each edge of each printed side will be wasted due to the
merging of printing inks, etc. So totally at least 4” width of fabric will be wasted. Also due
to the double job, the charges will be little higher than open width printing.
Hence it is preferable to print in open width form to avoid shade variation between sides, to
minimise the fabric wastage and to minimise the printing charges.
Procedures are the same for tubular print and open width print.
Water base prints:
As turpentine or kerosene is used as the base fluid, the fabric will smell after printing. Also
the printed fabric will have slightly rough hand feel. As an alternative for this, water is used
in place of turpentine or kerosene. This is called water base prints. Water base colours are to
be used as printing inks. But this kind of water print is very rarely used, because of dull look
and blurred print effect. Printing charges are almost the same as pigment prints.
Organic dyeing & printing:
As the dyes and chemicals are synthetic, there is another way of using natural substances for
dyeing and printing. They are called organic dyes. They are made mainly from the
vegetables. But this is very expensive and very rarely used.
All over prints (Pigment print) charges per kg in Rs.:
Table printing (manual printing): 20 to 30% print coverage: 25 – 30
30 to 50% print coverage: 45 – 50
Rotary printing: 20 to 30% print coverage: 20 – 30
Printed fabric washing with slight enzyme: 8 – 10
Printed fabric washing with heavy enzyme: 10 – 12
REACTIVE PRINTING (BY ROTARY MACHINE):
This is a special kind of print. For this, Reactive dyes to be used. (We have to remember that
Reactive dyes are used for fabric dyeing also).
Procedures:
1. Grey fabric is to be bleached or light colour dyed.
4. As the print dyes will penetrate into the fabric, there may be print impression on third
page of fabric. It is called Third page image. To avoid this, it is better to print in open
width form only.
5. The preparation of printing colours is not easier. Shade masters will prepare one
shade; but after printing we will get entirely new shade. Hence it needs very good
knowledge and experience for getting the required shades.
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6. Before bulk printing, small length of fabric is to be printed for checking the shades.
One bit of this printed fabric is to be tested with hot silicate to see the final shades.
Accordingly the dyes can be fixed or altered for bulk printing.
7. Printed fabric is to be kept under silicate storage for 10 – 12 hours.
8. Then the fabric is to be washed and rinsed in running water. To remove the print
dusts, this wash is essential. If the fabric is washed in winches or tubs, the print dusts
will stick to the fabric again. Hence the fabric has to be washed in running water. As
the water should not be recycled, it is better to wash the fabric in rivers. It is called
River Wash.
9. Then fabric is to be dried.
Advantages:
1. Best colour fastness.
2. Brightness of colours even after many washes.
3. Longer life for prints.
4. Very soft hand feel. By touch, we can’t find difference between the printed and
unprinted areas.
Risk factors:
1. Very expensive.
2. Too many important processes to be followed.
4. Too much care to be taken in every process.
5. Very difficult to get all the required shades exactly.
All over prints (Reactive print) charges per kg in Rs.:
Rotary printing: 20 to 30% print coverage: 60 – 70
DISCHARGE PRINTING (BY ROTARY MACHINE):
This is also a special kind of print. For this, Discharge dyes (Remazol dyes) are to be used.
If we have to print dark colours on White or Light colour background, we can easily use
Pigment printing. It means, if the printing colours are darker than the base colour, we can use
pigment printing.
But if we have to print light colours on Dark colour base, we have to use Discharge printing.
(In some cases, in pigment printing, if we have to print White colour or very light colour on
dark base, Gadi is added with the printing colour to stick on the fabric. But this will not have
better fastness. Print will vanish even by rubbing or washing. Prints will be so rough when
touching the printed area. Importantly, as Gadi contains azo dyestuffs, it is not used widely.
It is better to avoid this).
We have to remember that not all the dyes have discharging qualities. Only discharge dyes
are having discharging qualities. Hence it is essentially important that the fabric is to be dyed
with Discharge dyes (Remazol dyes).
Procedures:
1. Fabric is dyed with discharge dyes ONLY.
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4. As the print dyes will discharge the dyed portions and penetrate into the fabric, there
will be print impression on third page of fabric. It is called Third page image. To
avoid this, the fabric is to be slit opened compulsorily before printing. That is, the
fabric to be printed only in open width form.
5. Before bulk printing, the printing dyes to be checked whether the required colour
shades are achieved. This is very important as during printing, the printing shades
will not be visible (like Reactive printing).
6. Printing to be done with discharge dyes. When printing, the printing dyes will first
remove the dyed portions where the print is needed. Then they will let the required
colours to be fixed in the same places. These two things will take place at one time
simultaneously due to the special quality of discharge dyes.
7. After printing is completed, the fabric is to be stored in silicate storage for 10 -12
hours for fixation of colours.
8. After printing, the fabric is to be washed – Normal washing. No river wash is needed.
Advantages:
1. Only possible best way to print on dark colour base.
2. Better colour fastness.
3. Better soft hand feel.
4. Long lasting print quality.
5. Can be printed manually too.
Risk factors:
1. Expensive print cost.
2. All colour shades cannot be achieved.
3. So much care to be taken before printing in selecting suitable colours.
4. All the pre-processes and post-processes to be done with much care.
5. Can get better print quality only on some base colours like Black, Red, Green, and
Navy.
Some tips:
If the printing colour is only White, the fabric is to be peroxide bleached before dyeing.
Then after discharge printing, after the removal of dyeing colour, the base colour White will
be visible as printed.
If White is one of the printing colours, the same procedure to be followed to get the White
colour.
If the printing colour is only Offwhite, the fabric is to be half bleached before dyeing. Then
after discharge printing, after the removal of dyeing colour, Offwhite colour will be visible
as printed.
All over prints (Discharge dyeing + Discharge print) charges per kg in Rs.:
As we see, the fabric is to be discharge dyed. Therefore, it is better to dye and print in one
factory itself. Accordingly let us see the printing cost including dyeing cost. These costs will
differ according to the dyeing shades, number of colours, etc. Hence the below costs are to
give you a rough idea only.
Table printing (winch dyeing + printing): 20 to 30% print coverage: 60 – 70
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Rotary printing (dyeing + printing): 20 to 30% print coverage: 90 – 100
CHEST PRINTS:
Chest prints can be printed both manually and with machines. Nowadays only the machine
prints are used. Like all over printing on rotary machines, printing spot prints on chest
printing machines too have many advantages. They are as follows.
1. Perfect colours and shades.
2. Perfect placement and registration.
4. Better smoothness and sharpness.
5. No smell. No stain in unprinted areas.
6. Quick production.
7. Multi colour facilities (10 colours at a time).
8. Less wastage.
9. Longer life for prints.
There are 2 types of machines. One is called Octopus automatic machine (MHM). Other one
is Semi-automatic machine. Octopus machine will print automatically. This machine is very
costly (about Rs.40 lakhs). Hence the printing cost will also be higher. But prints will have
the best quality.
But nowadays the Semi-automatic machines are used widely. These machines are made
locally at cheaper prices (about Rs.1 lakh). With these machines, we can get better quality
prints at cheaper cost.
There are different quality chest prints namely Pigment prints, Plastisol prints, Glitter prints,
Flock prints, Water prints, Non-PVC prints, Foil prints, Foam prints, Reflective prints,
Perfume prints, Motif prints, Embossed prints, Sugar prints, Transfer prints, Sticker prints,
etc.
Chest printing charges:
Chest prints can be printed both in garment form and bit form depending on the print design
and area. The printing cost is generally based on the number of colours, print area and
coverage.
Manual printing (table printing) charges:
Only pigment prints should be printed by manually.
Up to 2 colours: Up to 5cm x 5cm: 2 per pc
Up to 10cm x 10cm: 4 per pc
For more than 2 colours, 10% of charge per colour can be added with above charges.
It is advisable to print maximum 4 colours by manually.
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After the manual printing, the printed fabric or garment is to be cured to remove the print
smell. The cost of curing is approximately Rs.5 per kg.
Machine printing (Plastisol inks) charges:
The printing cost also depends on the print quality like plastisol, flock, foil, sugar, glitters,
foam, etc. Here we will see the print cost for normal print namely Plastisol print.
To get the cost of other special quality prints, it is better to check with the printers.
Up to 3 colours: Up to 5cm x 5cm: 3 per pc
For above 3 colours, 10% of cost per colour is to be added with the above costs. 8 to 10
colours can be printed with machines.
After plastisol print, as there will be no print smell, the fabric or garment is not needed to be
cured. But the printed part is to be fused to have better fixing and colourfastness. Fusing cost
is included in the above costs.
The garment or fabric bits can be with softener finish. It does not matter, whether the
garment or the fabric bits are having softener or not. Print quality will not be affected and
will be the same.
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SPECIAL PROCESSES
There are some other special processes like Tie & Dye, Batiks, Garment Dyeing (Garment
wash), etc.
TIE & DYE:
This process can be done manually only. Reactive dyes or Discharge dyes can be used. It is
better to use Discharge dyes. This tie & dye process will give special dyeing effect.
It can be done in garment form or bit form according to the design and style.
Procedures:
1. Only 100%Cotton fabrics can be tie & dyed manually (in India).
2. The fabric is to be Peroxide bleached for better result. (If it is Chlorine bleached, the
result will not be good).
3. If we do tie & dye in garment form, the garment to be made in bleached fabric.
Important thing is that the garment to be stitched with 100%Cotton Grey thread
only. As Polyester thread will not get dyed, only 100%Cotton threads to be used
for stitching.
4. As the garment will shrink during tie & dye, the bleached fabric is to be compacted
well before making the garment.
5. After the tie & dye process, nothing can be done about measurements, shrinkage and
shape of garment. Hence some sample garments to be tested before bulk tie &dye, by
taking note of all the details. They have to be followed carefully to avoid problems in
measurements, shrinkage and shape.
6. If we do tie & dye in bit form, the fabric bit is to be cut with shrinkage allowance and
cutting allowance in lengthwise and widthwise.
7. When we cut the fabrics either for making garment or for bit form, the fabric is to be
cut in Wales (vertical) direction perfectly. Though this is the regular procedure for all
garments, this has to be followed compulsorily for Tie & Dye, essentially for keeping
better dimensional stability of garments after tie & dye.
8. If there is embroidery to be made in DTM colours (Dye To Match), the embroidery
should be done with 100%Cotton thread only. Then only the embroidery threads will
be dyed suitably. If we use normal embroidery threads, they will not get dyed.
9. If the embroidery colour is not DTM, the embroidery can be made with normal
embroidery threads.
10. Fabrics for body, sleeves, neck rib and other accessories to be dyed simultaneously
according to the requirement.
11. If there is any other base colour except White, the garment or bit to be dyed to the
required base colour. And to be dried under shades naturally.
12. Garments or bits are tightly tied with ropes according to the required design. It may
be stripes or any other design.
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13. Then the tied portions or untied portions will be dipped into the required colour dyes.
This is the dyeing process. The dipping will be done manually. It will take few
minutes only.
14. Then the ties are removed and the garments or bits to be dried under shades.
15. Then the garments or bits to be tied again for the next colour(s) and to be dipped in
the next colour(s) and to be dried under shades. And so on.
16. We have to remember that so far, the fixing agent is not added with the colour dyes.
If the fixing agent is added during these above processes, the other colours will not
fix properly.
17. After the completion of dipping of all required colours and after the garments or bits
dried after the final colours, the garments or bits to be fixed with fixing agent.
18. Then the garments or bits are to be dried under shadows.
19. As the fixing agent is fixed now, the colours are fixed in the garments and fabric bits.
(In case of emergency, now the garments or bits can be dried with machines too. But
to get better result, it is better to dry them in shadows).
20. Before cutting the bits for garments, the steam lines are to be carefully found out, as
the designs will be slightly confusing due to symmetrical effect.
Advantages:
1. Enormous designs can be made.
2. Very attractive and suitable for high fashions.
4. As it is done manually, can be made at affordable prices.
Risk factors:
1. As all the processes are done manually, there will be less consistency of designs and
quality.
2. Much time consuming process – especially due to natural drying.
3. More and more care to be taken at all stages – starting from knitting, cutting,
garmenting, processing, etc.
4. During and after the process, the fabrics can be dried only naturally. Drying by
machines is not possible. No alternative can be made in rainy seasons. Shipments
may be delayed if we don’t plan properly expecting the natural problems.
5. For larger quantities, many dyeing factories to be engaged accordingly. By this, due
to different dyes, methods, etc., we will get different qualities and results.
Approximate Tie & dye charges per kg in Rs.:
If it is to be tie & dyed in bit form, the charges will be based on number of colours, GSM,
length and width of the bits. Approximately, for 2 colours, 70cm length x 60cm width
(tubular) bit, the charge may be Rs.18 to 20.
Approximate charge for 2 colours may be around Rs.70 to 80 per Kg either fabric form or
garment form.
BATIKS:
This is also done manually. This is almost like tie & dye. This is like printing. This is also
called Wax printing.
The printing designs like stars, flowers, etc., will be made by wax. The procedures are the
same as for tie & dye. The print designs made by wax are stuck to the fabrics and over dyed.
The fabric beneath the wax designs will not get dyed. Hence after removing the waxes, the
fabric will look like the designs are printed.
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Though it is being done for woven and knitted fabrics, mainly it is used for Woven fabrics.
Mostly used for sarees, churidars, curtain cloths, bedspreads and lungies.
The prices for batiks are almost same as Tie & Dye charges. The charge of making wax
designs will cost more, depending on the design.
GARMENT DYEING:
This is one of the expensive and special processes.
We had seen that winches dye the fabrics and closed winches (soft flow machines). After the
fabrics are dyed, they will be cut as per the patterns to make the garments. Then body,
sleeves, collars, cuffs are attached together. Since many parts are attached, there may be
shade variations between these parts, even though we have taken more care. Also the
garment may have more shrinkage to washing. To avoid this and to have special washed
effects on the garments, garment-dyeing method is followed.
This garment can achieve dyeing following special effects.
1. Stone wash.
2. Acid wash
3. Enzyme wash
4. Faded wash.
5. Denim (Jeans) wash, etc.
Procedures:
1. Fabric for body, sleeve, collar, cuff, neck rib, rope, etc., to be made from the same
mill yarn and from the same yarn lot.
2. All these fabrics and accessories to be scoured (half bleached) together.
3. The garments to be made from these scoured fabrics.
4. Garments should be stitched with 100%Cotton threads only. Buttons and buttonholes
are to be made with the same 100%Cotton threads only.
5. If there is embroidery to be made in DTM colours (Dye To Match), the embroidery
should be done with 100%Cotton thread only.
6. When we cut the fabrics for making garment, the fabric is to be cut in Wales
(vertical) direction perfectly. Though this is the regular procedure for all garments,
this has to be followed compulsorily for garment dye, essentially for keeping better
dimensional stability of garments after garment dye.
7. After the garment dyeing, nothing can be done with the garments for measurements,
shrinkage and shape. Hence some sample garments to be tested before bulk garment
dyeing, by taking note of all the details. They have to be followed carefully to avoid
problems in measurements, shrinkage and shape.
8. By these sample garments dyeing (pre-bulk dyeing), the washing method and
washing effect are to be checked and confirmed.
9. The garments are dyed in soft flow machines with Pigment dyes.
10. As the garments are dyed in vessels, the stitched areas will get the washed or the
faded effect. This effect will be more in some places where many fabrics are attached
together - mainly at neck seam around collar, shoulder seam, placket box, cuffs, side
slits and pockets. (Depending on the required effect, the substances are to be used.
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For example, for stone washed effect, some special pebbles are used during washing
to get stonewashed effect).
11. If the garment is processed more than enough, the garment will get damaged in some
areas mainly at neck seam around collar, shoulder seam, placket box, cuffs, side slits
and pockets. Hence the garments should be washed very carefully according to the
required effect.
12. Recipes of approved lab dips to be followed exactly.
13. Washing methods and timings to be noted well and to be followed carefully.
14. Each vessel (soft flow dyeing machine) will have different capacities. The garments,
dyed from one machine at one time, are called Lot. There will be difference in shades
and washing effect between lots. Hence quantity of garments to be divided into lots
according to the packing method. This is important to avoid shade and effect
variation between garments in one carton.
Advantages:
1. There will not be any shade variation between body, sleeves, collar, cuffs, etc.
2. As the shrinkage is controlled completely, there will not be any shrinkage further.
3. Washed look can be achieved.
4. Different qualities of washes are possible.
Risk factors:
1. It is not possible to get the exact shades 100%.
2. Shade variation between lots cannot be avoided fully.
3. Due to the damages in garments, rejections of garments will be high. Hence average
cost of garments will be increased.
4. Due to the special effects and quality, it is expensive.
5. Much more care to be taken in all stages to avoid rejections and problems.
Approximate garment dyeing charges per kg in Rs.:
Scouring: 30
Light and medium shades dyeing: 80 – 100
Dark shades dyeing: 100 – 130
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EMBROIDERY
Embroidery can be made by manually and by computerised machines.
As all the machines are fully computerised with most advanced technologies, nowadays
embroidery is being done with the best finishing and consistent quality. With these machines
it is possible to make any complicated design even in 9 colours.
Other types of embroidery are Applique and Acoba embroidery (all over embroidery).
Applique:
This is made as decorative embroidery. Some piece of same fabric or contrast fabric is to be
attached with the garment and embroidery to be made on or around this fabric cutting.
Acoba embroidery (all over embroidery):
With the above said embroidery machines, size of the embroidered area is restricted to some
extent. This will vary from machines to machines. But to make the embroidery all over the
fabric, some other special machines to be used.
In these special acoba embroidery machines, all over embroidery can be made. (Like the
fabric is printed in rotary printing machines).
Though acoba embroidery can be made on woven and knitted fabrics, the best results can be
achieved in woven fabrics. Because of its own quality nature, knit fabrics will get more
damages and holes by acoba embroidery.
Acoba embroidery is commonly made in sarees, blouses, designer’s fabrics, decorative
fabrics, curtain cloths, etc.
Embroidery charges:
Embroidery cost based on the number of stitches, number of colours and sizes of
embroidery.
Due to competition, nowadays the embroidery cost has come down as around Re.1.00 per
1000 stitches. But the minimum cost is around 2.50 per garment, though the number of
stitches is lesser.
Applique embroidery cost is based on the fabric cutting cost, fixing cost, etc in addition to
the number of stitches, number of colours and sizes of embroidery.
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ACCESSORIES
Buttons, Zippers, Twill tapes, Ropes, Elastics, Badges, Labels, Hang tags, Inner boards,
Tissue papers, Packing pins, Polybags, Inner cartons and Outer cartons are called
accessories.
The prices of accessories are based on the quantity and quality. Also each accessory has
many dimensions, qualities, specifications, etc. So it is difficult to discuss here about their
prices in details. It is better to check the current prices with the suppliers.
Anyhow, for making costing, we must have a basic knowledge about the costs. Hence let us
see approximate prices of them as below.
Cost of Buttons:
Ordinary design of shirt buttons (chalk): Rs.8 to 10 per gross (12 dozens).
(Imitation) Horn buttons: Rs.10 to 15 per gross.
Special designs of shirt buttons: Rs.15 to 40 per gross.
Shirt buttons with engraved letters (inside design): Rs.50 to 70 per gross.
Shirt buttons with embossed letters (inside design): Rs.40 to 60 per gross.
Metal buttons, wooden buttons – Varies as per design, quantity, etc.
Cost of Zippers:
No5 (5mm width) Nylon 7” length: Rs.7 per zip.
No5 Nylon 24” length: Rs.24 per zip.
No5 Metal (brass or antique brass) 7” length: Rs.5 – 7 per zip.
No5 Metal (brass or antique brass) 24” length: Rs.22 – 24 per zip.
For adult garments, No.5 zippers are used. For children garments, No.3 zippers are used.
Cost of No.3 zippers is lesser than No.5 zippers.
Lock quality is to be checked. Mostly the auto lock zippers are used. In these auto lock
zippers, if we leave the puller when the zipper is halfway opened, the auto lock will lock the
zipper. Even if the tapes are pulled, the zipper cannot be opened. It can be further opened or
closed only by pulling the pullers. These auto lock zippers are used because they are very
safe.
The above prices are for the zippers with normal pullers. For the special pullers, the prices
will be different.
Cost of Twill tapes & ropes:
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Though readymade twill tapes are available in the markets, it is better to make the twill tapes
and ropes with the same yarn, which is used, for the body fabrics to avoid shade variations
after dyeing. Hence here we will see only the weaving charge for twill tapes & ropes.
It is approximately Rs.30 to 40 per kg. Yarn price to be added with this charge.
Cost of Elastics:
Elastics are made with Nylon and Polyester yarns. Nylon elastics are costlier than Polyester
elastics. Hence polyester elastics are used mostly.
There are plain elastics and named elastics. The prices are based on quality, width, thickness,
etc. Elastics with the width of 4mm, 6mm, 8mm, 10mm, 12mm, etc are used for legs of
undergarments. Elastics with 1cm, 2cm, 2.5cm, 3cm and 4cm elastics are used for waist of
undergarments and outer garments.
From 4mm to 6mm width: Around Rs.0.50 per metre.
From 8mm to 10mm width: Around Rs.1.00 per metre.
From 1.5cm to 2cm width: Around Rs.1.75 per metre.
From 2.5cm to 3cm width: Around Rs.2.50 per metre.
From 3.5mm to 4cm width: Around Rs.3.50 per metre.
Prices of named elastics are more expensive than plain elastics. It depends on the design,
number of colours, quality and quantity.
Cost of Badges:
Badges attached to the garments either by stitching or fixing with paste. Most of the badges
are attached by stitches only.
Badges are in many types. It may be a big woven label or printed woven cloth or engraved
leather or plastic or PVC sticker or reflective plastic. As these badges are very special, it is
better to check the prices with the suppliers.
Cost of Labels:
There are main labels, size labels, wash care labels, flag labels and badge labels or patch
labels. These labels are made in woven or polyester printed.
Woven labels are made in computerised automatic looms to get better quality and clarity.
Hence the labels made with these machines are costlier. There are 2 types of woven labels.
One is Taffeta and the other is Damask. Taffeta labels are woven on single side of labels. In
these labels, you can see the unevenness of yarns on the backside. This is single weave.
Damask labels are woven on both sides. In these labels, you can see the evenly woven yarns
on the backside also. This is double weave. Damask labels are costlier than Taffeta.
The woven labels are to be checked with hot water for colourfastness. If the yarn colour
bleeds, it may spread and spoil the look of labels and garments after washing. Though it is
not generally necessary for woven labels, it is safer to check them too.
There are non-computerised looms are also available. With these machines also woven
labels are made. Mostly these machines are used to make woven wash care labels, size labels
and main labels with cheaper quality at cheaper prices.
Woven labels: Main label (2.5cm width x 7cm length): Rs.0.30 to Rs.0.40
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Main label (4cm width x 10cm length): Rs.0.60 to Rs.0.80
Size label (1cm width x 3cm length): Rs.0.10
Wash care label (4cm width x 10cm length): Rs.0.30 to Rs.0.40
Badge (patch) label (1cm width x 4cm length): Rs.0.10
Flag label (3cm width x 4cm length): Rs.0.12
Printed labels are used for wash care labels. For undergarments these printed labels are used
for mentioning size, composition, care instructions, etc. Single colour and multi colours are
printed on polyester or satin tapes. Satin tapes are little costlier than polyester tapes.
The printing inks may have poor colourfastness. Hence before using the printed labels,
colour fastness of printing inks to be checked with hot water. This is an important thing.
Printed labels: Single colour (1” width x 10cm length): Rs.0.08 per label.
Single colour (1.25” width x 10cm length): Rs.0.10 per label.
2 or 3 colours (1” width x 10cm length): Rs.0.15 per label.
Cost of Hangtags:
To mention brands, sizes, colours, prices, composition, etc, tags are used and attached with
the garments. Though these tags are removed from the garments by the end users, it is used
for attraction and for giving special appearance for the packed garments. Hence the quality,
style, design, colours, cutting and presentation of these hangtags are to be importantly better.
The tags can be made at cheaper prices, if printing and cutting are made manually. But it is
always better and safer to print in automatic offset printing machines and to cut in die-
cutting machines to get better finish and high look.
The price depends on quality & thickness of the board, printing design, single side or both
sides printing, number of colours, measurement, die-cut design and quantity.
If the tag is in normal size with normal print without die cut, the price may be Rs.0.40 to
Rs.0.80 per tag. If there is anything special, the price may be Rs.1.00 to Rs.1.50 per tag.
If any photo is to be scanned & printed and if the quantity is lesser than 1000 nos, the price
may be around Rs.4.00 per tag.
Cost of Inner board:
Price depends on sizes, quality, die cut (scoring) and quantity.
For normal size, normal quality: Rs.0.30 to Rs.0.50 per board.
For special sizes, special quality with die cut: Rs.0.50 to Rs.1.00 per board.
Cost of Tissue paper:
If it is plain tissue paper: Rs.0.10 to Rs.0.15 each paper, depends on paper quality.
If it is a printed tissue paper: Rs.0.25 to Rs.0.50 each paper, depends on quality of paper &
print.
We have to remember that we may need to insert more than one tissue paper per garment.
Cost of safety pins and threads:
Some times the hangtags are to be attached to labels with safety pins. The cost of pin +
thread may be around Rs.0.30 to Rs.0.50 depending on the quality of pin & thread.
Cost of Polybags:
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Normally 2 qualities of polybags are used. One is PP (Polypropylene). Another is PE
(Polyethylene).
As PE polybags are recyclable, nowadays, most of the customers insisting to use PE only.
PE polybags are little costlier than PP bags. The PE polybags will have less strength in
sealing (side joints) comparing with PP bags. Due to this, the rejection of polybags will be
more. PE polybags look dull and will not have shiny look.
PP bags have bright look. If the polybag is very thin, it may not be recyclable. Hence the
thickness (gauge) is to be checked and confirmed according to the specifications prescribed
by the customers and Government statutory bodies.
Price depends on thickness (Gauge), measurements, prints, quantity, etc. The prices can be
fixed either on weight (kg) or quantity. Price of each polybag is fixed with the number of
polybags per kilogram.
PP polybags:
Approximate cost of polybag per kg: Rs.55.00 to Rs.65.00.
The cost of a normal polybag without print may be Rs.0.30 to Rs.0.40 per bag.
With size printed on front and care instructions printed on back (normal measurement):
Rs.0.60 to Rs.0.80 per bag.
If the polybag is required with heat sealed tape, the cost of tape will be added to the above
prices at the rate of Rs.0.02 for one-inch length. If the width of polybag is 12”, the tape cost
will be Rs.0.24 per bag.
PE Polybags:
The prices of PE bags are approximately 10% higher than the prices of PP bags.
Cost of master polybag (blister):
The master polybags should have more thickness so that many garments can be packed
inside. One master bag cost may be approximately Rs.3.00 to Rs.5.00 depends on the
measurements and gauges. Approximately 12 or 24 garments can be packed in one master
bag, depends on the packing size & volume of the packed garments. Hence approximately
Rs.0.25 will be the master bag cost per garment.
Cost of Hangers & Sizers:
There are many qualities of hangers like wooden hangers, plastic hangers, satin padded
hangers and coated aluminium hangers. But generally the buyers ask their suppliers to use
the plastic hangers only.
The hangers are in different types, styles, and sizes suitable for different garment styles,
sizes, etc. Also the hooks are in different types.
Some buyers use the hangers with their brand name engraved or embossed or printed or
stuck on the hangers. Some buyers will nominate their hanger suppliers and these buyers will
ask us to buy the hangers only from these suppliers.
The sizers are to be attached with the hangers to show the sizes of the garments. These sizers
are available in different styles according to the hanger designs.
The prices of hangers and sizers are based on the style, design, quantity, etc. The price of
one plastic hanger of 17” with one sizer will be Rs.4.00 to Rs.5.00 approximately.
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Cost of Cartons:
Cartons are used as Inner carton and Outer carton.
Inner Cartons:
The inner cartons can be in lesser ply and in lesser GSM paper. So the cost of inner cartons
will be lesser.
For 3 ply cartons to pack 12 garments, the cost will be Rs.15.00 to Rs.20.00 per inner carton
(for 12 garments). Hence the cost of inner carton will be approximately Rs.1.25 to Rs.1.60
per garment.
Outer Cartons:
It is important that the outer cartons to be made in Virgin paper, which means the paper,
should be used for the first time. Recycled papers should not be used. Also the outer cartons
must be sea worthy to avoid the damages due to salty wind during transit by sea.
Also the cartons must be strong enough for the safety of garments packed inside. The
strength of cartons based on number of plies and paper thickness (GSM). Normally 7 ply or
9 ply cartons with 100GSM, 120GSM or 150GSM papers are used.
Approximate cost of a carton is around Rs.25.00 to Rs.40.00 to pack 24 to 50garments.
Thus cost per garment will be around Rs.1.25.
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CMT CHARGES (Cutting, Making, Trimming)
This is the main job in garmenting.
Some factories will do only CMT jobs. The export factories will supply the required fabrics,
trims and accessories to these Job workers. These factories will add about 25% of the actual
charges as their profit. Though CMT is Cutting, Making and Trimming charges, it is
inclusive of the cost of sewing thread, charges of button attachment & buttonholes and other
attachments, local transport, etc.
Here let us see the CMT charges as if the garmenting is done in the exporting factory itself.
CMT charge depends on the style of garment, number of jobs with over lock, flat lock &
lock stitch machines, quality standards, time consumption, productivity, packing methods
and other works.
For making knitted garments following machines are mainly used.
- Over lock machines.
- Flat lock machines.
- Lockstitch machines.
Over lock machines are used for joining two or more fabrics. The productivity with these
over lock machines is very high. Hence the charges for these jobs are considerably lesser.
Flat lock machines are used for hemming the edges and for covering the stitches around
armholes and shoulders. The operators of these machines should have more experience and
knowledge. Due to the higher cost of these machines and due to the higher wages for the
operators and due to the lesser productivity, the charges for these jobs are higher.
Lock stitches are used for making plackets, pockets, V-neck covering, and attaching collars
& labels. There are manual and power driven machines are used. Because of the better
perfection and faster production comparing with manual machines, nowadays, only the
power driven machines are used. When comparing with the other machines (over lock & flat
lock), the productivity from these lockstitch machines is very lesser. Due to this and due to
higher wages for the operators, the charges for these jobs are very much higher.
Here let us see approximate CMT charges for the basic garments.
Men’s Basic T-shirts – short sleeves: Rs.10 per pc.
Men’s Basic T-shirts – long sleeves: Rs.12 per pc.
Men’s T-shirts – Printed or Yarn striped – short sleeves: Rs.12 per pc.
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Men’s T-shirts – Printed or Yarn striped – long sleeves: Rs.14 per pc.
Men’s Solid Polo shirts – short sleeves: Rs.18 per pc.
Men’s Solid Polo shirts – long sleeves: Rs.20 per pc.
Men’s Polo shirts – Printed or Yarn stripes – short sleeves: Rs.20 per pc.
Men’s Polo shirts – Printed or Yarn stripes – long sleeves: Rs.22 per pc.
Ladies Basic Tops without collar – short sleeves: Rs.10 per pc.
Ladies Basic Tops with collar – short sleeves: Rs.13 per pc.
Ladies Basic Night dresses – short sleeves: Rs.10 to Rs.12 per pc.
Long pyjamas with 2 side pockets: Rs.12 to Rs.15 per pc.
Boxer shorts with 2 side pockets: Rs.12 per pc.
Boxer shorts without pockets: Rs.8 per pc.
Shorts with 2 side pockets: Rs.10 per pc.
These above charges are approximate. If there are any extra works, the charges to be added
accordingly.
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SHIPPING
Shipping means the transportation of goods. It includes local road transport, rail transport,
sea transport, air transport, etc.
Delivery terms:
There are many delivery terms like FOB, C&F, CIF, Ex-factory, EXW, FCA, FAS, CFR,
CPT, CIP, etc. While we confirm the orders from the customers, the delivery terms are to be
confirmed.
FOB:
It is the abbreviation of Free On Board. It means freight will be paid by the buyer.
C&F:
It is the short form of Cost and Freight. It means the price is inclusive of the cost and the
freight. If it is C&F By sea, it means the price is inclusive of the cost and sea freight. If it is
C&F By air, it means the price is inclusive of the cost and air freight.
CIF:
It is Cost, Insurance and Freight. It means the price is inclusive of the cost, insurance
premium and the freight. The goods to be insured to 110% (generally) of the value of the
goods and if any damage or theft or loss, it will be claimed by the buyer.
Ex-Factory:
This term is used only for domestic (inland) business. It is the same as FOB. It means the
buyer will pay the freight - it may be road or rail transport.
EXW (Ex Works):
It is the same as Ex-Factory.
FCA (Free Carrier):
It is the same as FOB.
FAS (Free Alongside Ship):
It is the same as FOB.
CFR (Cost and Freight):
It is the same as C&F.
CPT (Carriage Paid To):
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It includes the Cost and Sea freight & Road transport up to the buyer’s final destination
place.
CIP (Carriage and Insurance Paid to):
It is the same as CIF.
We have to confirm any one of these delivery terms with the buyers when we quote prices.
Mostly FOB, C&F, CIF terms are used. Some buyers will use different names for the terms.
If we have doubt about the terms, it is better to clarify with the buyer while discussing the
prices.
In case of local supply on C&F or CIF terms, the charges of road or rail transport to be
added with the cost of garment. Local transport either by road or rail to the customer’s
destination can be checked locally according to the distance, routing, availability, etc.
In case of export to other countries, the local transport and sea freight or air freight are to be
added with the cost of the garment.
SEA FREIGHT:
When we talk about the freight charges, we have to remember that it is the total expenses of
following.
1. Local transport to the port.
2. Port expenses – Loading, unloading and overtime charges (if needed in case of
urgency).
3. Charges of stuffing the goods into container.
4. Customs charges – Documentation, inspection, etc.
5. Charges of freight.
6. Service charges of clearing and forwarding agent.
The goods are stuffed in to containers and stowed in to the ships. There are 2 types of
loading. One is FCL (Full Container Load) and the other is LCL (Loose Container Load).
There are 20’, 40’ and Hi-cube containers available with different capacities. Their
approximate capacity is as follows.
20’ container: 23 cubic metres.
40’ container: 46 cubic metres.
Hi-cube container: 60 cubic metres.
According to the volume of goods, the size of container is to be decided. If the volume is
suitable to fit into one full container (20’ or 40’ or Hi-cube), it is called FCL.
If the volume is lesser than the capacity of 20’ container, then the goods can be stuffed in to
a container as a part load. The balance volume of the container will be filled with other’s
goods. It is called Loose Container Load.
Sometimes, different goods from different suppliers – but for the same buyer - may be
stuffed in one full container. This is called Consolidation of Goods.
The sea freight is varied based on volume or weight, distance between destinations, routing
& transit time, transshipment, shipping lines and conference lines.
Volume or weight:
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Generally volumes consider freight. But some goods (not garments) will have lesser volume;
but with more weight – Like steel, granite stones, etc. In this case, the freight will be based
on weight too.
Distance between destinations:
It is the distance from the loading port to the discharge port (destination port). The ship,
which carries the containers to the final destination port, is called Mother Vessel. This ship
will be very big in size with larger loading capacity.
Routing & transit time:
Transit time is the traveling time of the ship. It will differ according to the distance between
destinations and to the sea route.
Transshipment:
Some ports will not have more sea depth. Hence the Mother Vessels cannot enter into these
ports. Though some ports have more sea depth, the Mother Vessel will not enter into these
ports due to lesser port activities or taking more time to reach these ports, etc. To solve this
problem, the small ships are used to take the containers to the nearest bigger Port where the
big mother vessels are available. These small ships are called Feeder Vessels.
For example, as Tuticorin port is small, the mother vessels do not come to this port. The
nearest port is Colombo. Colombo port is very big. As this port is in the main sea route, most
of the mother vessels are routing through Colombo port. The transit time between Tuticorin
port and Colombo port is only 8 hours. Hence the feeder vessels are taking containers to
Colombo port daily. Thus the containers are being taken to Colombo port by feeder vessel.
And in Colombo port, the containers are shifted (transshipped) to mother vessel. This system
is called transshipment.
Also the mother vessels may not be able to reach some destination ports. Hence the
containers may be transshipped to some other vessel from any other port in between. This is
also called transshipment.
Freight charges are based on these transshipment expenses too.
Shipping lines:
The companies own the ships are called shipping lines. These shipping companies operate
their ships in the major ports around the world, according to their capacities. Some
companies tie up their business with other shipping companies in some areas. If they don’t
have their own vessel in a particular port area, their partner company will use their vessel.
The receipt of sea transport is called Bill of Lading – in short B/L. (We will discuss about
this in detail later). Bill of Lading (receipt) will be generally issued by the shipping lines. As
we discussed above, if there are more than one shipping line involved in one shipment or if
the shipping line does not have their office in our port, then the Bill of Lading will be issued
by the Shipping agent or Liner’s agent. This is a regular practice.
Conference Lines:
Some big shipping lines are called Conference Lines. It means these companies will use only
their own ships – for transshipments. It means from the port of loading to the port of
destination, the goods will sail on one company’s ships. By using these Conference Lines,
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