2. Nerve injuries
Anatomy
Causes
Patterns of injury
Examination
Principles of Surgery
Reconstructive surgery
3.
4. ANATOMY
Continuation of posterior cord of brachial plexus
C5,C6, C7, C8,(T1)
Primarily motor nerve
Innervates
Triceps
Supinators of the forearm
Extensors of the wrist, fingers, and thumb.
5. • Formed in front of
subscapularis;pass
anterior to lat dorsi to pass
through the triangular
interval
• accompanied by the
profunda brachii artery
6. upper arm
• enters posterior (extensor)
compartment
• supplies triceps
• re-enters anterior compartment of
arm by piercing lateral
intermuscular septum.
7. • At the level of the lateral
epicondyle
• gives off posterior interosseous
nerve
• passes between two heads of
supinator
• enters the extensor
compartment of the forearm.
8. • The superficial radial nerve
continues into the forearm in
the anterior compartment deep
to brachioradialis
• terminates by supplying the
skin over the posterior
aspect of the thumb, index,
middle and radial half of
the ring finger
9. Causes:Radial Nerve injury
Fractures of humeral shaft
Gunshot wounds, lacerations of arm and proximal forearm
Injection injuries
Entrapment syndromes
in the arm : fibrous arch of the lateral head of the triceps muscle.
10.
11. PIN ENTRAPMENT SYNDROME
Two types of posterior interosseous nerve entrapment
(Spinner).
Type I
Complete paralysis of all muscles supplied by the nerve
include
extensor digitorum communis,
extensor indicis proprius,
extensor digiti quinti,
extensor carpi ulnaris,
abductor pollicis longus,
extensor pollicis brevis.
Type II
only one or a few of these muscles are paralyzed.
12. PIN ENTRAPMENT SYNDROME
. posterior interosseous nerve :
fracture-dislocations or dislocations of the elbow,
fractures of the forearm,
Volkmann ischemic contracture, ,
aneurysms,
rheumatoid synovitis of elbow
13. Radial Tunnel Syndrome
Entrapment of the posterior interosseous nerve leading to
chronic and refractory tennis elbow (Roles and Maudsley).
Four potentially compressive anatomical structures:
(1) the origin of the extensor carpi radialis brevis,
(2) adhesions around the radial head,
(3) the radial recurrent arterial fan, and
(4) the arcade of Frohse as the posterior interosseous nerve enters
the supinator.
Presentation:
Pain in the region of the radial nerve beneath the extensor mass at
and just distal to the radial head,
pain on resistance to supination of the forearm,
electrodiagnostic measures
14. Superficial Radial Nerve palsy
Etiology:
nerve may be caught in scar tissue at the wrist after
surgery or trauma.
Constricting jewelry
Presentation:
pain in forearm
sensory impairment on the dorsum of the thumb.
15. Examination
Following muscles can be tested accurately because
their bellies or tendons can be palpated:
triceps brachii,
brachioradialis,
extensor carpi radialis,
extensor digitorum communis,
extensor carpi ulnaris,
abductor pollicis longus,
extensor pollicis longus.
16. Diagnosis
Inability to
extend the elbow
supinate the forearm
wristdrop.
An inexperienced examiner often may be misled by
the patient's ability to extend the wrist merely by
flexing the fingers.
17. Examination
by injuries of the nerve at the level of the middle of the
humerus or distally.
triceps not seriously affected
In injuries of the nerve at its bifurcation into the deep
and superficial branches,
the brachioradialis and the extensor carpi radialis longus
continue to function;
the arm can be supinated, and the
wrist can be extended.
The nerve is especially susceptible to electrical
stimulation in situ just proximal to the elbow
18. Sensory examination
no autonomous zone.
If present : over the first dorsal interosseous muscle,
between the first and second metacarpals.
too inconsistent
confirmatory evidence of complete interruption of the
nerve proximal to its bifurcation at the elbow.
20. Treatment
Methods of Closing Gaps
Interfascicular nerve grafting:preferred method
Mobilization techniques
In axilla & proximal arm on medial side proximal to the
point of emergence of branches to triceps,
6 to 7 cm
without sacrificing the branches to the triceps
Resecting humerus not feasible at this level.
21. Treatment
Methods of Closing Gaps
In middle third of arm,
10 to 12 cm
mobilizing the nerve from the elbow to the clavicle
widely stripping the branches of the nerve, by
Flexing & externally rotating shoulder, adducting arm across
the chest,
sacrificing branch to brachioradialis (if biceps is functioning).
Transposing the nerve beneath the biceps anterior to the
humerus,
3 to 4 cm of humerus resection in presence of nonunited
fracture humerus
22. Prognosis
More favorable than for any other major nerve in
the upper extremity because
it is predominantly a motor nerve
muscles innervated by it are not involved in the
finer movements of the fingers and hand.
23. Results of Suture of the Radial Nerve
Only motor recovery is important in suture of the radial
nerve.
89% obtain recovery of proximal muscles
63% regain useful function of all muscles supplied by
the radial nerve,
36% regain some fine control of the extensors of the
fingers and thumb.
29. Anatomy
Formed by junction of lateral and medial root of
median nerve from the medial and lateral cords of
the brachial plexus in the axilla
Composed of fibers from( C5), C6, C7, C8, and T1.
From the sensory standpoint, they are more
disabling than injuries of the ulnar nerve because
they involve the digits used in fine volitional
activity
30. After originating from the brachial
plexus in the axilla, the median nerve
descends down the arm, initially
lateral to the brachial artery.
Halfway down the arm, the nerve
crosses over the brachial artery, and
becomes situated medially.
The median nerve enters the anterior
compartment of the forearm via the
cubital fossa.
In the forearm, the nerve travels
between the flexor digitorum
profundus and flexor digitorum
superficialis muscles.
31. The median nerve gives rise to two major
branches in the forearm:
Anterior interosseous nerve -
Supplies the deep muscles in the
anterior forearm.
Palmar cutaneous nerve - Innervates
the skin of the lateral palm.
The median nerve enters the hand via
the carpal tunnel, where it terminates
by dividing into two branches:
Recurrent branch – Innervates the
thenar muscles.
Palmar digital branch – Innervates
the palmar surface and fingertips of the
lateral three and half digits. Also
innervates the lateral two lumbrical
muscles.
32.
33. Causes
Lacerations, usually in forearm or wrist.
In the upper arm,
relatively superficial lacerations
excessively tight tourniquets
humeral fractures,
when injured near axilla, the ulnar and
musculocutaneous nerves and the brachial artery also
are commonly injured.
In the arm, the median nerve may be compressed by
the ligament of Struthers.
34.
35. At the elbow, the nerve may be injured in
supracondylar fractures
posterior dislocations of the elbow.
Pronator syndrome
At the wrist, the median nerve may be injured by
fractures of the distal radius
fractures and dislocations of the carpal bones.
36. Examination
Pronator Teres,
Flexor Carpi Radialis,
Flexor Digitorum Profundus (Index),
Flexor Pollicis Longus,
Flexor Digitorum Sublimis,
Abductor Pollicis Brevis.
Substitution movements
caused by action of intact muscles may cause
confusion during the examination.
37. Usually, if the forearm
can be actively
maintained in
pronation against
resistance, the
pronator teres is
intact.
38. If the wrist can be
actively maintained in
flexion, and a
contracting flexor
carpi radialis is
palpated, this muscle
is intact.
39. if the interphalangeal
joint of the thumb can
be maintained in flexion
against resistance with
the wrist in the neutral
position and the thumb
adducted, the flexor
pollicis longus is
functioning.
40. Although opposition
of the thumb can be
difficult to confirm, if
the thumb can be
actively maintained in
palmar abduction and
a contracting abductor
pollicis brevis is
palpated, this muscle
is functioning.
41. The flexor digitorum
sublimis to each finger
is examined
separately, while the
remaining fingers are
held in full passive
extension.
42. Sensory supply of the median nerve
volar surface of thumb, index and middle fingers
radial half of the ring finger
dorsal surfaces of the distal phalanges of the index
and middle fingers are supplied by the median
nerve.
autonomous zone
dorsal and volar surfaces of the distal phalanges of
the index and middle fingers
Autonomic changes
Iodine starch test
Ninhydrin print test.
43. Tendon Transfers
Median Nerve Palsy
Classification
1) High
Above Origin Of Anterior Interosseous Nerve
Pronator Teres And Quadratus, FCR, FDS (II – V), FDP(II
& III) And FPL Paralyzed
2) Low
Thenar Intrinsic Muscles Paralyzed
Abductor Pollicis Brevis, Opponens Pollicis, And
Superficial Head Of Flexor Pollicis Brevis
44. TREATMENT
If the onset of paralysis has been spontaneous, the
initial treatment is nonoperative.
Surgical exploration
indicated in absence of clinical or EMG improvement
after 12 weeks.
If nerve injury is caused by a penetrating wound,
primary repair is recommended.
In irreparable injury to the nerve, tendon transfers are
indicated
45. Results of Suture of the Median
Nerve
Motor recovery is crucial after median nerve repair;
Hand without median nerve sensory supply is
almost useless.
Even with the best sensory recovery, the patient
probably will have difficulty with stereognosis.
46. 50 %patients with recover sensitivity to pain and
touch and some stereognosis
90% of these patients recover a useful degree of motor
function in the long flexors of the forearm
In more distal lesions, about two thirds attain some
useful motor recovery
47. CRITICAL LIMIT OF DELAY OF SUTURE
Motor recovery in the intrinsic muscles of the hand
9 months in high lesions
12 months in low ones.
Sensory recovery
9 months in high lesions
12 months in low ones
may occur when suture has been delayed 2 years.
Sensory return in children is possible, however, after
longer delays.
48. TENDON TRANSFERS
Median Nerve Palsy
Reconstructive Goals
Thumb Opposition
FPL Function
Index FDP Function
Sensation
Prime Determinant In Hand Function
49. Tendon Transfers
Low Median Nerve Palsy
Deficit And Deformity
Abduction And Opposition Frequently Retained
Due To Diverse Innervation Of Intrinsics
Median And Ulnar Nerves
51. Tendon Transfers
Low Median Nerve Palsy
1) FDS Opponensplasty – Royle-Thompson
FDS Brought Around Ulnar Border Of Palmar
Aponeurosis
FDS Has A Large Potential Excursion
Adjusting Tension Not As Critical
Margin For Error
52. Tendon Transfers
Low Median Nerve Palsy
1) FDS Opponensplasty – Bunnel Technique
Ring Finger FDS Divided
FCU Exposed
4cm Proximal To Pisiform Insertion
Tendon Split Into Two Halves
Free End Looped Back Onto Its Base
Ensure Loop Not Too Tight
53.
54.
55. Tendon Transfers
Low Median Nerve Palsy
2) Extensor Indicis Proprius Opponensplasty
Popular In High Median Nerve Palsy
Ring And Middle FDS Unavailable
Does Not Weaken Grip
Tendon Must Be Superficial To FCU
Avoid Compression To Ulnar Nerve
58. Tendon Transfers
Low Median Nerve Palsy
4) Camitz Procedure
Tfr of PL to APB
Performed At Same Time As Carpal Tunnel Release
Restores Palmar Abduction
Palmaris Longus Usually Scarred
59.
60. Tendon Transfers
High Median Nerve Palsy
Deficit
All Flexor Compartment Forearm Muscles
Apart From Ulnar-Innervated FCU And FDP
Aim Of Tendon Transfers
Flexion Of Index And Thumb
Opposition
Potential Motors
Brachioradialis FPL
ECRL Index FDP
61. Tendon Transfers
High Median Nerve Palsy
Extrinsic Transfers
Restoration Of Index
Function
ECRL Index FDP
Side-To-Side Suturing Of
Profundus Tendons
Restores Range Of Motion
Strength Is Not Restored
62. Tendon Transfers
High Median Nerve Palsy
Extrinsic Transfers
Restoration Of Thumb
Function
Brachioradialis FPL
63. Tendon Transfers
High Median Nerve Palsy
Thumb Opposition
Early Transfer
Allows Pronation Of Hand
Compensates For Loss Of Sensation
Possible Transfers
EIP
EPL
Extensor Digiti Minimi
FCU – Eliminates Only Functioning Wrist Flexor
64.
65.
66.
67. ANATOMY
continuation of medial cord
C7, C8, T1
no branches in the upper
arm.
enters the posterior
compartment of the upper
arm midway down its length
by piercing the medial
intermuscular septum,
passes behind the medial
epicondyle of the humerus to
enter the forearm
68. ANATOMY
Gives articular branch to
elbow
descends to the wrist
deep to flexor carpi
ulnaris.
supplies flexor carpi
ulnaris and the ulnar
half of flexor digitorum
profundus.
69. ANATOMY
Just proximal to the
wrist it gives off a
dorsal cutaneous
branch that supplies
the skin over the
dorsal aspect of the
little finger and the
ulnar half of the ring
finger
70. ANATOMY
crosses into the palm superficial
to the flexor retinaculum in
Guyon's canal.
It divides into a
motor branch, which supplies
the
hypothenar muscles,
the intrinsic muscles of the hand
(apart from the radial two
lumbricals)
adductor pollicis, and
cutaneous branches,
supply the skin of the palmar
aspect of the little finger and the
ulnar half of the ring finger
73. Causes
Axilla / upper arm :
usually accompanied by other nerves and brachial artery
Midarm :
relatively protected
Distal arm , elbow :
Dislocation of elbow
Supracondylar fractures
Distal forearm/wrist :
Gunshot , laceration , fractures or dislocations
74. Other causes
Traction on nerve
Subluxation or dislocation of nerve
Entrapment syndrome
Displaced fractures of medial humeral epicondyle
Tardy ulnar nerve palsy
Shallow ulnar groove on posterior aspect of medial humeral
epicondyle
Hypoplasia of humeral epicondyle
Inadequate fibrous arch
Prolonged flexion at elbow
Direct pressure during surgery
75. TYPES
High ulnar nerve palsy:
All extrinsic and intrinsic muscles affected
Sensory loss over palmar and dorsal aspect of medial third of
hand , sensory loss over palmar and dorsal aspect of whole of
little finger and ulnar half of ring finger
Low ulnar nerve palsy :
Only deep intrinsic muscles affected
No sensory loss over proximal and middle phalynx of little
and ring finger due to sparing of dorsal cutaneous branch
78. Examination
“ Claw hand “ deformity : Benediction hand
Flattened palm and wasting of hypothenar region
Shallow midpalmar receptacle distal to thenar and hypothenar
eminences
Longitudinal palmar furrows between prominent long flexors (
wasting of lumbricals )
Concavities in intermetacarpal spaces
Loss of sensation over the little finger and ulnar half of ring
finger
Trophic changes , ulceration , brittle nails
79.
80. Patho-anatomy of deformity
Paralysis of interossei and lumbricals
Unopposed MCP joint extension & IP joint flexion by
digital extensors & flexors
Without stabilization of MCP joints in neutral/slight
flexed position, long extensor function “blocked” at
MP joint by diversion of this tension to sagittal band,
producing hyperextension and effectively blocking the
extensor's ability to extend PIP joint.‡
81. Specific signs and tests for motor dysfunction
Duchenne's sign : Hyperextension at MCP joints &
flexion at IP joints of ulnar two fingers
Bouvier’s maneuver : Dorsal pressure over proximal
phalanx to passively flex MP joint results in
straightening of distal joints and temporary
correction of claw deformity
Extensor digitorum tendon can extend middle and
distal phalanges when proximal phalanx stabilized
Andre-Thomas sign : On palmar -flexon of wrist
exaggeration of deformity
82. Pitres-Testut sign : Inability to actively move long
finger in radial and ulnar deviation with palm placed
flat
Cross your fingers test : Inability to cross middle
finger dorsally over index finger, or index over
middle finger
Masse's sign: Flattened metacarpal arch and loss of
hypothenar elevation
Wartenberg's sign : Inability to adduct extended
little finger to extended ring finger
83. Jeanne’s sign : Hyperextension of MP joint of thumb
during key pinch or gross grip
Froment’s sign : Thumb IP joint flexion while
attempting to perform lateral pinch
Bunnell’s O sign : Combined hyperextension at MP
joint and hyperflexion of IP joint (noticed when
patient makes a pulp to pulp pinch with thumb and
index finger)
88. ANOMALOUS INNERVATION PATTERNS
5 -10 % cases : FCU
innervated by C7
Martin- Gruber
anastomosis :
Between median and
ulnar Nerve
Marinacci
Communication
b/w ulnar and median in
forearm
89. ANOMALOUS INNERVATION PATTERNS
Richie – Cannieu
anastomosis :
Anomalous connection
between motor branch of
ulnar nerve and
recurrent branch of
median nerve near wrist
Berretini anastomosis
b/w common digital brs
of median & ulnar nerve
90. PRINCIPLES OF SURGERY
Sensation recovers earlier than motor power after
suturing
Critical limit of delay :
motor :
6-9 months for lesions at elbow
12 -15 months for lesions at wrist
Sensory :
2 years
Vascularity of the limb should be adequate , joints should be
fully mobile and power of muscles to be transferred should
be adequate
No contractures permissible
91. Nerve repair
Transposition
Medial epicondylectomy
Reconstructive surgery
PRINCIPLES OF SURGERY
92. INCISION
Nerve repair :
,
Incision given over tendon of
pectoralis ,curving over natural
folds of axilla and then over
medial aspect of arm
6-8 cm proximal to elbow ,
curve incision slightly
posteriorly
Continue incision and
dissection along ulnar side of
volar aspect of forearm
free it from FCU at its origin at
humeral epicondyle or resect
epicondyle
2 cm in wrist and 4 cm at
elbow can be overcome
by transposition
11 -15 cm by flexion of
elbow , wrists
Posterior splint or slab
needed for 2 -4 weeks
93. Principles of Surgery
Transposition :
With arm abducted and
externally rotated .
Incision made on
posteromedial surface of
elbow , 7 cm proximal to
epicondyle
Reflect skin flap
anteriorly and identify
nerve in its groove
Free FCU from its
humeral origin
94. Principles of Surgery
Transposition :
Identify branches to FCU
and FDP and dissect
them intraneurally
nerve freed from Arcade
of Struthers till the point
where nerve lies between
2 heads of FCU
Divide the tendinous
origin or medial
epicondyle for
submuscular transfer
96. RECONSTRUCTIVE SURGERY
Deformities and deficiencies correctable by surgery
Claw hand
Unstable thumb
Flattened or reversed distal transverse arch
Loss of strong adduction of 1st metacarpal
Loss of abduction of index finger
Abnormal abduction of little finger
Loss of sensibility in autonomous area of little finger
Weakness of flexion in ulnar deviation of wrist
Wasting of intermetacarpal spaces
98. Zancolli
Capsulodesis
Volar MP joint Capsulodesis
A1 pulley release with MP
joint volar plate advancement
Complicated claw hands
with MP joint contracture
Zancolli incorporated collateral
ligament release on both sides
of MP joint with volar
capsuloplasty
99. METHODS OF CLAW HAND RECONSTRUCTION
Static procedures :
To maintain MP joint in some degree of flexion
or to limit MP joint hyperextension
claw posture reversed by functioning long
extensors
Flexion of MP joint unrestricted in static
procedures
100. Proximal Phalangeal Flexion Static Techniques
Fasciodermadesis ( Zancolli )‡
Excision of 2 cm of the palmar skin (dermadesis) at
MP joint level combined with shortening of
pretendinous band of palmar aponeurosis
(fasciodermadesis) to correct claw hands with weak
extensors
101. Dorsal Methods (Howard; Mikhail)
To provide bony block to proximal phalangeal
extension
Enables long extensors to extend IP joints and correct
deformity.
Mikhail inserted bone block on dorsum of the
metacarpal head
102. Static Tenodesis Techniques
Riordan
One half of ECRL and ECU tendons made use of
as “grafts” to prevent hyperextension of MP joint while
remaining half continue to actively extend wrist
103. Dynamic procedures:Integration of
Finger Flexion
Fowler tenodesis
Incorporates active wrist motion
to tension static tendon grafts
Free tendon grafts sutured to
extensor retinaculum of wrist
and passed in a dorsal to palmar
direction through the
intermetacarpal spaces, volar to
the DTML, through the
lumbrical canals, and onto the
lateral bands of dorsal extensor
expansion of 4 fingers
104. Tendon Transfers
Ulnar Nerve Palsy
Wrist Motors For Proximal Phalanx Power
Muslces Available
ECRL
ECRB
Brachioradialis
FCR
Gross Grip Power Improved
105.
106. Tendon Transfers
Ulnar Nerve Palsy
Thumb-Index Key Pinch
Requires Thumb Adduction And Flexion
Loss Of Adductor And Interossei
FPL And EPL Contribute
Lesser Extent
75 – 80% Loss With Ulnar Nerve Palsy
Arthrodesis Of MCP & IP Joints Of Thumb An Option
107. Tendon Transfers
High Ulnar Nerve Palsy
Significant Deficit
FCU And FDP Paralysis
Decreased Power Grip
Options
FDP Paralysis
Tenodesis Of Profundus Tendons
FCU Paralysis
Consider Transfer FCR To FCU
108.
109. Tendon Transfers
Ulnar Nerve Palsy
Preferred Transfers
1) Thumb Adduction
ECRB Adductor Tubercle Thumb
FDS (Long) Adductor Tubercle Thumb
2) Thumb-Index Tip Pinch
APL First Dorsal Interosseous & Arthrodesis Thumb
MP
EPB First Dorsal Interosseous & Arthrodesis Thumb
MP
114. Sciatic Nerve
Analogous to brachial
plexus.
anterior primary rami of
L5, S1, S2, and S3
trunk formed by the
posterior divisions form
common peroneal part
trunk formed by the
anterior divisions becomes
the tibial part of the sciatic
nerve
diameter 2 to 2.5 cm
115. leaves pelvis through sciatic notch
common peroneal part laterally and tibial part
medially
descends deep to the gluteus maximus to the level of
the inferior gluteal fold
follows a more superficial course to the distal third of
the thigh
supplies articular branches to the hip joint&
hamstrings
In apex of popliteal fossa, common peroneal part
leaves laterally to supply the short head of the biceps
femoris & deviates laterall
larger tibial nerve, which continues distally in the
midline of the limb.
116. Mode of injury
Hip
gunshot wound to the thigh or buttock.
posterior dislocation and fracture-dislocation of the hip,
intramuscular injection into the buttock
surgery around the hip joint.
Compression of the sciatic nerve by wear debris from long-
standing total hip replacements
Compression caused by anatomical variations in the
relationship of the nerve to the gluteal and piriformis muscles
and to the sciatic notch may cause sciatic pain.
Thigh
penetrating wounds and fractures of the femoral shaft.
Peroneal half of the nerve is injured much more often than
is the entire nerve.
117. Examination
Muscles supplied by the peroneal component
include the anterior tibial and the long extensors of
the toes (deep peroneal nerve) and the peroneus
longus and the peroneus brevis (superficial
peroneal nerve).
118. Foot drop:
equinus deformity of the foot, clawing of the toes, and
atrophy of the muscles innervated by the nerve,
depending on the level of the injury.
Profound weakness of flexion of the knee,
inability to dorsiflex the foot or extend the toes,
inability to plantar flex and evert the foot,
inability to flex the toes may be seen.
Peroneal part: sensory loss primarily over the lateral
aspect of the leg and dorsum of the foot.
When the tibial nerve is involved, the sensory deficit is
primarily over the plantar aspect of the foot.
Autonomic disturbances and chronic pain may follow an
injury to the sciatic or tibial nerve..
119. The autonomous zone of the
sciatic nerve includes
metatarsal heads and over the
heel,
the lateral and posterior
aspects of the sole of the foot,
the dorsum of the foot as far
medially as the second
metatarsal,
a narrow strip up the lateral
aspect of the leg.
120.
121. Treatment
Methods of Closing Gaps
Mobilizing the nerve : 15 cm
flexing the knee
hyperextending the hip.
When the femur has been fractured and the sciatic nerve
divided, it is very important, even in the presence of
draining sinuses, to operate on the nerve before the femur
has united because, aside from the effect of time on the
nerve ends and muscles, the knee may stiffen, and it may
be impossible to flex it enough to close large defects.
Resecting a part of the femur may be necessary to help
close the gap. When a fracture is present, such a resection
may be justified and can be done with ease.
autogenous interfascicular nerve grafting
especially in young patients.