Lecture from week 10 of the Later Roman Empire module at the University of Liverpool.

1. RELIGION AND THE
ROMAN ARMY + KEY
SOURCES
Dr Jamie Wood
CLAH266 – week 10
30th November 2012

2. Structure
1. Religion in the Roman Army
a. Summary so far
b. Empire, victory and religion
c. Military cults
d. Christians (sometimes martyrs) in the army
e. Christianity in the Roman army
f. An angry God
2. Break
3. Seminar on key sources for late 4th and 5th
centuries

3. Religion and the military so far
 The Empire (built on conquest) is god-
given:
 Aureus, Octavian (first Roman
Emperor, also known as Augustus) 29-27
BCE: goddess Victoria standing on a
globe, holding a wreath in her right hand
and a vexillum on her shoulder
 Mid 3rd century:
 Romans suffer defeats at hands of
barbarians and internal civil wars; armies
make and unmake (i.e. kill) many emperors
 ‘Persecution’ as a means of re-establishing
relationship between empire and gods
 312:
 Constantine is victorious over Maxentius
because he has a better ‘god of war’
(according to some sources)

4. Eusebius, Life of Constantine,
1.28-29
 “Accordingly he called on him with earnest prayer and supplications that he would
reveal to him who he was, and stretch forth his right hand to help him in his present
difficulties. And while he was thus praying with fervent entreaty, a most marvellous
sign appeared to him from heaven, the account of which it might have been hard
to believe had it been related by any other person. But since the victorious
emperor himself long afterwards declared it to the writer of this history, when he
was honoured with his acquaintance and society, and confirmed his statement by
an oath, who could hesitate to accredit the relation, especially since the testimony
of after- time has established its truth? He said that about noon, when the day was
already beginning to decline, he saw with his own eyes the trophy of a cross of
light in the heavens, above the sun, and bearing the inscription, CONQUER BY
THIS. At this sight he himself was struck with amazement, and his whole army
also, which followed him on this expedition, and witnessed the miracle. He
said, moreover, that he doubted within himself what the import of this apparition
could be. And while he continued to ponder and reason on its meaning, night
suddenly came on; then in his sleep the Christ of God appeared to him with the
same sign which he had seen in the heavens, and commanded him to make a
likeness of that sign which he had seen in the heavens, and to use it as a
safeguard in all engagements with his enemies.”

5. Calendars
 Read the calendar on your handout and think
about the following questions:
 What events/ people are the soldiers celebrating in this
calendar?
 What is being offered to the Gods?
 What do you think would have been the effects of these
celebrations on the troops?

6. Religion in the military
 Military religion is a communal matter
 Brings people together to engage in cult/ ritual
acts
 Emphasises their loyalty to the empire
 Improves group cohesion (socially and religiously)
 It is also an individual matter
 Individual soldiers engage in cult acts to specific
gods with military associations (next few slides)

7. Gold solidus of
Constantine II
VICTORIA (337-340) with
Victoria on
reverse
 ‘To the victory of our Emperors and of Legion I
Adiutrix Loyal and Faithful Antoniniana, Publius
Marcius Sextianus, son of Publius, from Ephesus,
[set up this] at public expense through the decree of
the town council, dedicated by Egnatius Victor,
legate of the Emperors with propraetorian power,
and Claudius Piso, legate of the fifth legion, on 13
June, in the consulship of Aper and Maximus.’
 CIL 3. 11082, inscription, Arrabona (Györ), Upper Pannonia,
207 CE:

8. DOLICHENUS
 An eastern cult from Commagene
popular in army, possibly due to link
with iron and with Jupiter
 Decline in late 3rd century (after
Commagene taken by Sassanids)
 ‘To Jupiter Best and Greatest, of
Doliche, and the spirits of the
Emperors, for the welfare of Emperor
Caesar Titus Aelius Hadrian Antoninus
Augustus Pius, father of the
fatherland, and of Legion II
Augusta, Marcus Liburnius
Fronto, centurion of the same
legion, willingly and deservedly fulfilled
his vow.’
 CIL 7. 506 = RIB
1330, inscription, Condercum
(Benwell), Britain, 2nd century CE

9. MITHRAS
 Ancient Iranian spirit of light;
attributes include that of a
successful warrior; increasingly
popular with troops from late
2nd C CE
 Connection to Sol Invictus?
 ‘To the invincible Sun-god
Mithras, Everlasting Lord,
Publicius Proculinus, centurion,
on behalf of himself and his son
Proculus, willingly and
deservedly fulfilled his vow, in
the consulship of our lords Gallus
and Volusianus.’
 CIL 7. 646 = RIB 1600, inscription,
Mithras altar from frontier fort at
Vercovicium (Housesteads),
Osterburken in Germany Britain, 252 CE

10. Military martyrs
 Idea developed in Christian discourse of 2nd and 3rd
Cs that martyrs are soldiers of Christ (miles Christi)
 Army as place where persecution began because of
need to sacrifice
 e.g. Eusebius, Ecclesiastical History, 7.15.1-5
 Tension between oath taken to enter army and
Christian oaths means Christians shouldn’t really be
in the army
 Tertullian, On the military crown, late 2nd/ early 3rd C
Martyrdom in general and military martyrdom in
particular – contribute to idea that victory can be
gained by dying for the faith

11. Christians in the 2nd C army:
The thundering legion
‘It is reported that Marcus Aurelius Caesar […], being about to engage
in battle with the Germans and Sarmatians, was in great trouble on
account of his army suffering from thirst. But the soldiers of the so-
called Melitene legion, through the faith which has given strength
from that time to the present, when they were drawn up before the
enemy, kneeled on the ground, as is our custom in prayer, and
engaged in supplications to God. […] The lightning drove the
enemy to flight and destruction, but a shower refreshed the army
of those who had called on God, all of whom had been on the point
of perishing with thirst. […] Among these is Apolinarius, who says
that from that time the legion through whose prayers the wonder
took place received from the emperor a title appropriate to the
event, being called in the language of the Romans the Thundering
Legion.’
 Eusebius, Ecclesiastical History 5.5

12. The military oath
 Read the oath on the next slide
 What does the military oath entail?
 What happens before it?
 What is the purpose of the military oath?

13. The military oath
“when recruits have been carefully selected who excel in mind and body, and
after daily training for four or more months, a legion is formed by order and
auspices of the invincible Emperor. The soldiers are marked with tattoos in the
skin which will last and swear an oath, when they are enlisted on the rolls.
That is why (the oaths) are called the “sacraments” of military service. They
swear by God, Christ and the Holy Spirit, and by the Majesty of the Emperor
which second to God is to be loved and worshipped by the human race. For
since the Emperor has received the name of the “August”, faithful devotion
should be given, unceasing homage paid him as if to a present and corporeal
deity. For it is God whom a private citizen or a soldier serves, when he
faithfully loves him who reigns by God’s authority. The soldiers swear that
they will strenuously do all that the Emperor may command, will never desert
the service, nor refuse to die for the Roman State.”
(Vegetius, Epitome of Military Science, 2.5; late fourth century)

15. Prayers for victory
 Vegetius, Epitome of Military Science, 2.18:
 “If anyone, therefore, desires the defeat of the
barbarians in an open battle, let him seek in all his
prayers, that by the will of God and the Invincible
Emperor’s policies, the legions may be reinstated with
new recruits. Within a brief space of time, recruits
carefully selected and trained every day, not just in the
morning but even in the afternoon, in every skill of arms
and art of warfare, will easily match those soldiers of old
who conquered the entire terrestrial sphere.”

16. Prayer and battle
 Maurice, Advice for Generals , 2.8 and 12.6 (late
6th century)
 ‘Instead of the shout, prayers should be said in camp on
the actual day of battle before anyone goes out the gate.
All, led by the priests, the general, and the other
officers, should recite the “Kyrie eleison” (Lord have
mercy) for some time in unison. Then, in hopes of
success, each meros should shout the “Nobiscum Deus”
(God is with us) three times as it marches out of camp.’
 ‘When ranks have been properly closed, and the line is
about one bowshot from the enemy, and the fighting is
just about to begin, the command is given: “Ready.”
Right after this another officer shouts: “Help us.” In
unison everyone responds loudly and clearly: “O God.”’

17. Victory given by God
 Battle of the Fridigus in 394
 Eugenius, usurper in the
west, sympathetic to pagans
 Theodosius, emperor in the
east, staunch Christian
 E placed a statue of Jupiter on the
edge of the battlefield and applied
images of Hercules to banners
 T prays for a storm; arrows of E’s
forces blown back at them
 Decisive victory for Theodosius
 Interpreted as further proof of
power of Christian God to grant
victory over pagan gods

18. Defeat as God’s punishment
 Victories of barbarians over imperial armies
interpreted as divine punishment
 E.g. death of Emperor Valens at hands of the Visigoths at
Adrianople (378):
 ‘his punishment should bear even greater witness to, and
provide an even more terrible example of, Divine Wrath for
future generations, he did not even have a common grave.’
(Orosius, Histories)
 Similarly, the sack of Rome by the Visigoths (410)
 Some pagans argue that it is punishment for the
abandonment of traditional cults in favour of Christianity
 Refutation of these opinions is one of reasons for Augustine
writing his famous City of God

19. Chastising an erring people
 Isidore of Seville, History of the Goths 28-29
(early 7th century):
 “It should be noted that, while every battle is
damaging to the peoples involved, the Huns actually
served a purpose by perishing. This is because they
had been raised up for the discipline of the
faithful, just like the nation of the Persians. For they
were the rod of the wrath of God. As often as his
indignation went forth against the faithful, he
punished them with the Huns, so that, chastened by
their suffering, the faithful would force themselves
away from the greed of this world and from sin and
claim the inheritance of the celestial kingdom.”

20.  Empire – religion – military
Summary victory are interconnected from
the start
 The army is a highly religious
institution (as are many
individuals within it)
 Stages:
 Initially Christians are seen as
threat to divine support for Roman
armies
 Later this switches:
 the Christian God is on the side of
the Romans and gives them victory
 religious practice within the army
thus shifts to demonstrate strong
support for Christianity

22. Seminar: key sources for the
late 4th-5th centuries
 Based on the research that you did at home and
reading the extracts from the text(s) in the rest of
this booklet, please answer the following questions:
 What kind of source is it?
 When was it written?
 Why is it important?
 What are its strengths and weaknesses?
 What do the extract(s) provided tell us about the
functioning of the later Roman Empire?
 What do the extract(s) provided tell us about the fall of
the Roman Empire or how contemporaries interpreted
the problems facing the empire?

23. Some key sources
(click on links to go to scans of the in-class work)
 Ammianus Marcellinus, Histories
 The Theodosian Code
 Priscus, History
 Hydatius, Chronicle
 Gildas, On the Ruin of Britain

24. Summary

25. Homework
 Read and make notes on
 Lee, A. D. "The army“, in Averil Cameron and Peter
Garnsey, eds., The Late Empire, A.D. 337–425
(Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, 1998), pp. 211-237. [available on VITAL]