Research Methods in Architecture - Theory and Method

1. Research Methods in
Architecture
Theory and Method
Dr. Yasser Mahgoub

2. Chapter 4
Theory in Relation to Method
Architectural Research Methods
Linda Groat & David Wang

3. 4.1. Introduction
A Theory emerges when explanation is set
forth systematically, usually from
language, or by means of other signs and
annotation.

4. 4.1. Introduction
What is theoria?
• The “active contemplation” of an object, rather
than the passive reception of external effects.”

5. What is theory?
Several definitions depending on the discipline.
• In the natural sciences it is a removed and systematic
accounting of an object where exact prediction is very
high; i.e. where the relationship between several factors
can be demonstrated to cause a result that can be
predicted over and over again. If it cannot be
demonstrated then it is determined to be a false theory.

6. What is theory?
• In the human sciences it is not
based on exact prediction (as
much), but rather on statistical
probabilities that can generalize
on behavior or on a detailed
“thick description” of a particular
social-cultural context.
• In the fine arts it is based on
systematic philosophical
constructions.

7. A scientific theory: Archimedes'
Buoyancy Principle “EUREKA!”
• After he discovered his principle of buoyancy, the
ancient Greek scholar Archimedes allegedly yelled out
"Eureka!" and ran naked through the city of Syracuse.
The story goes that Archimedes made his great
breakthrough when he noticed the water rise as he got
into the tub.
• According to Archimedes' buoyancy principle, the
force acting on (buoying) a submerged or partially
submerged object equals the weight of the liquid that
the object displaces. This sort of principle has an
immense range of applications and is essential to
calculations of density, as well as designing
submarines and other oceangoing vessels.
• Explains the past, the present and predicts the future!

8. A scientific theory: Law of
Gravitation
• more than 300 years ago Sir Isaac Newton proposed a
revolutionary idea: that any two objects, no matter their
mass, exert gravitational force toward one another. This
law is represented by an equation that many high
schoolers encounter in physics class. It goes as follows:
F = G × [(m1m2)/r²]
• F is the gravitational force between the two objects, measured in
Newtons. m1 and m2 are the masses of the two objects, while r is the distance
between them. G is the gravitational constant.
• The benefit of the universal law of gravitation is that it
allows us to calculate the gravitational pull between any
two objects. This ability is especially useful when
scientists are planning to put a satellite in orbit or
charting the course of the moon.
• Explains the past, the present and predicts the future!

9. 2
A scientific theory: E=mc
• E represents energy, m represents mass, and c² is the square of the
speed of light (2.9 x 10^8 meters per second!).
• A tiny amount of mass when multiplied by such a huge number (C)
yields an incredible amount of energy. Releasing that energy can do
everything from power cities (a nuclear power plant) to destroy them
(a nuclear bomb).
• Predicts the future!

10. A scientific theory: Big Bang
Theory
• The big bang theory postulates that the universe began almost 14
billion years ago with a massive expansion event. At the time, the
universe was confined to a single point, encompassing all of the
universe's matter. That original movement continues today, as the
universe keeps expanding outward.
• Explains the past, the present and predicts the future!

11. A scientific theory: PLACEBO
EFFECT
• If you're given a pill and told it'll cure your headache, and your
condition improves even though the pill contains nothing but chalk,
you have experienced the placebo effect. If you believe in it strongly
enough, almost anything can have a placebo effect.
• Scientific tests under controlled conditions have shown that placebo
effects can be enhanced by giving people bigger pills, by giving them
pink pills rather than white ones, and by the perceived seniority of the
doctor who's prescribing the pill.
• Predicts the future!
If you believe in it strongly enough,
almost anything can have the placebo
effect

12. A scientific theory: MEMETICS
• Whenever we copy habits, skills, stories or any kind of information
from person to person, we're dealing in memes. The term was
coined by Richard Dawkins to describe 'cultural replicators' that
copy and transmit biological information. Humans copy memes,
including ideas and skills, through imitation and teaching; but they
get changed, accidentally or on purpose, so that culture evolves.
This echoes the way species evolve as genes mutate. Like genes,
some memes are successful, while others aren't. It's obvious why
some memes spread - they're useful, or aesthetically pleasing, like
melodies. But some spread even though they confer no clear
benefit - things like computer viruses.
• Predicts the future!

13. An Architecture Theory:
Vitruvius
• "De architectura libri decem" (Ten Books on
Architecture), the oldest treatise on architecture to
survive in its entirety from pre-Christian times.
• Vitruvius' work is not simply a unique source off
information about the architecture of antiquity and
its principles, but has become the foundation for all
writings on architectural theory since the Born: Rome ca. 80 B.C.
Renaissance. Died: Rome, ca. 20 B.C.
• The three fundamental laws that Architecture must
obey, in order to be so considered: firmitas, utilitas, Firmitas
firmness
venustas, translated in the 17th century by Sir
Henry Wotton into the English slogan firmness,
commodity and delight (meaning structural
Utilitas Venustas
adequacy, functional adequacy, and beauty).
commodity delight
• What architecture is!

14. An Architecture Theory:
Le Corbusier
• The New Spirit of the 20th-century: The ideal house
as “a machine for living. Based on engineering
achievements in bridge building and steamship
construction; on modern materials such
as ferroconcrete, sheet glass, and synthetics; and on
contemporary needs such as town
planning and housing projects.
• The International style of low-lying, unadorned
buildings that depend for aesthetic effect on simplicity
of forms and relation to function.
• What architecture should be!

15. Architecture quotes
• “Architecture is the learned game, correct and magnificent, of forms assembled in the light.” Le
Corbusier quotes (Swiss Architect and city planner, whose designs combine the functionalism of
the modern movement with a bold, sculptural expressionism. 1887-1965)
• “The mother art is architecture. Without an architecture of our own we have no soul of our own
civilization.” Frank Lloyd Wright quotes (American Architect and Writer, the most abundantly
creative genius of American architecture. His Prairie style became the basis of 20th century
residential design in the United States, 1867-1959)
• “All architecture is shelter, all great architecture is the design of space that contains, cuddles,
exalts, or stimulates the persons in that space.” Philip Johnson
• “There are three forms of visual art: Painting is art to look at, sculpture is art you can walk around,
and architecture is art you can walk through” Dan Rice
• “Architecture is a social act and the material theater of human activity.” Spiro Kostof
• “Fashion is architecture: it is a matter of proportions.” Coco Chanel (French Fashion
designer who ruled over Parisian haute couture for almost six decades, 1883-1971)
• “Architecture, of all the arts, is the one which acts the most slowly, but the most surely, on the
soul” Ernest Dimnet
• “An architect is the drawer of dreams” Grace McGarvie
• “Architecture is music in space, as it were a frozen music” Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph von Schelling
• “Writing about music is like dancing about architecture.” Laurie Anderson

16. How is Theory related to research Methodology?
Theory describes, explains, and predicts.
Research methodologies are:
1. Prescribed ways to test and prove or disprove
those descriptions, explanations, and
predications.
2. Provide a means by which theoretical claims to
applicability beyond the particular case can be
affirmed, modified, or rejected.
Theories are more general, but research
methodologies are more specific.

17. Good Fit
• There are usually “good fits” between
Theory and Method (strategy).

18. 4.2. The Framework of Theory
in General
Six components of a theory (Moore)
1. Propositions/observations about some
aspect of the universe (something visible
and knowable)
2. Logical connections between the
propositions (abstract factors)
3. A set of conclusions drawn from #1 and
#2 that the logical connections can be
used to predict the propositions or
observations

19. 4.2. The Framework of Theory
in General
Six components of a theory (Moore)
4. Linkages to empirical reality; i.e. assumption
that the factors in #2 can be used to accurately
represent empirical reality. (Empirical is: Relying
on or derived from observation or experiment:
empirical results that supported the hypothesis.
Verifiable or provable by means of observation or
experiment: empirical laws. Guided by practical
experience and not theory, especially in medicine.)
5. A set of assumptions or presuppositions
underlying the theory.
6. Testability of the theory: related both to its
internal logical coherence (understandable by
others) and its applicability to other cases.

20. 4.2. The Framework of Theory
in General
2 added components of a theory (Moore)
1. Disciplinary domain
2. Philosophical axioms

21. Example of an Architectural
Theory
• David Canter  Theory of
Place
• Physical environments take
Physical
on significance as a result of
the interaction of three
domains: Physical locale,
Activity performed in that Activities Meanings
locale and the meanings
assigned to that union of
place with activity.
• “Constituents of Places”

22. 4.3. Different Ways to Conceptually
Divide Theory in General
4.3.1. Positive vs. Normative Theory
• Positive theory: Descriptive and explanatory – Identify
causal links - Predicts future behaviors of objects based
on identified causal links. (definite, scientific, logical
rigor)
• Normative theory: Describe, explain and predicts future
behaviors based on long-term usage or accepted, but
not proven “truths”. These do not have the same rigor of
proof (testing) as positive theory and can have a variety
of results. (Design or architectural theory)

23. John Lang “Creating Architectural Theory”
• Architectural theory: Behavioral concerns related to the
process of designing environments.
Design
Positive Current fields
Theory Normative
Theories
Design
Positive fields Proposed
Theory Normative
Theories

24. 4.3. Different Ways to Conceptually
Divide Theory in General
4.3.2. Big, Medium and Small Theories
• Big theories are large in scope—link several
phenomena into one explanatory framework that
is transferable to other disciplines
• Small theories are limited in scope—localized
explanations of things, not necessarily
transferable to other situations
• Medium theories have a little of both and are
useful within a certain discipline, but will not
have wide applicability across disciplines

25. Example of Middle-range
Architectural Theories
• Privacy
• Personal Space
• Territoriality
• Aging and the environment
• Environment and crime

26. Example of Middle-range
Architectural Theory
• Dan Cuff  “Excellent Buildings”
• Consumers or public
• Participants in the design
process Consumer
• The Architectural Profession
Designers Profession

27. 4.3. Different Ways to Conceptually
Divide Theory in General
4.3.3. Polemical Theories of Design
• Polemic: A controversial argument, especially
one refuting or attacking a specific opinion or
doctrine. A person engaged in or inclined to
controversy, argument, or refutation.
• In this case, different “theories” of architectural
design that take opposite or varying stances on
a certain concept.

28. Example of Polemically Theories
Related to Design Activities
• Set of visual attributes  Pugin
“pointed gothic architecture”
• How cultural time should be
expressed in architectural form 
Ginzburg, Venturi “Complexity
and Contradiction in Architecture”
• How natural processes ought to
be expressed in material form 
Sullivan “Form ever follows
function”

29. Scientific Theories vs.
Theories of Design
• Designers tend to discuss ‘theories’ of
what should be done”
• Scientists refer to ‘theories’ of “what might
be the case”
Scientific Design
Theories Theories

30. 4.3. Different Ways to Conceptually
Divide Theory in General
4.3.4. Prediction vs. Persuasion
• Positive Theory identifies “causal” links that lead
to “predictions” of future behavior.
• Design “theories” tend to have less predictability
(no causal links, testing), and are based rather
on rhetoric and persuasion (generalizability
depends on how subjectively universal it claims
to be or how much it is understood by a large
group of people; i.e. cultural).
• Positive and polemical design theories emerge
out of a cultural context.

31. Example of Polemical Architectural
Design Theories
• Mies  “Less is More”
– Machine aesthetic
– Human identity

32. Example of Polemical Architectural
Design Theories
• Sullivan  “Form Ever
Follows Function”
It is the pervading law of all things organic
and inorganic,
Of all things physical and metaphysical,
Of all things human and all things super-
human,
Of all true manifestations of the head,
Of the heart, of the soul,
That the life is recognizable in its expression,
That form ever follows function.
This is the law.

33. A Theory is the link between a philosophy
and the strategies and tactics of research.

34. Philosophy  Theory  Method
Philosophy Theory Strategy Tactics

35. 4.3. Seven types of research
Seven types of research explained in the
book include:
1. Interpretive-historical
2. Qualitative
3. Correlational
4. Experimental
5. Simulation
6. Logical argumentation
7. Case study

36. 4.3. Seven types of research
4.3.1. Interpretive-historical
• Philosophy: The world is coherent and can be
known through narratives.
• Tactic: Use empirical evidence from the past
• Sources: Archival material, public and private
documents, the site, interviews of eyewitness,
comparison with similar situations, re-
enactment of key actions or events
• Example: Rybczynski  Home: A short history
of an idea – the evolution of home from the
medieval period to the late 20th century. Why
ideas first emerged? Privacy, intimacy, comfort,
hygiene, family home, …

37. 4.3. Seven types of research
4.3.2. Qualitative
• Interpretation of contemporary situations
• More subjective with emphasis on the role of the
researcher: background, gender, point of view, …
• Philosophy: Pure objectivity is impossible
particularly of complex social-cultural settings.
• Example: Gans  Levittown, New Jersey: post
WW2 housing boom, planned communities
• Theory: New community development, how much
of town planning is affected by builders and
residents, is suburban life bad? Rapid growth vs
Slow growth.
• Tactic: Participant-observer, open-ended
questionnaires, interviews, notes  narrative.

38. 4.3. Seven types of research
4.3.3. Correlational
• Philosophy: “Real World Experience”. Much of
life experience cannot be explained purely by
causal connections, many things cannot be
linked to a specific cause, in situations involving
human beings, reducing experience down to
specific causal variables is hard to do and
unethical. Tries to show that while certain
variables have strong relationships with other
variables, there does not have to be proof that
one variable causes the other.
• Strategic: Well-defined variables.
• Example: Newman  High-rise vs Low-rise
public housing in NY – Crime - Defensible Space

39. 4.3. Seven types of research
4.3.4. Experimental
• Philosophy: Causal connections. Scientific, objective, and
quantifiable, seeks causal connections between two
variables with a reliably predictable result.
• Tactic: Manipulate a variable within controlled setting and
observe effect of that variable on behavior, material data.
• Example: Brandle and Boehm  triple-glazed windows
performance
• Example: Zeisel  senior citizens’ residence

40. 4.3. Seven types of research
4.3.5. Simulation
• Philosophy: How reality is constituted? How
can one know it? Descartes  I think therefore
I am.
• Theory: Knowledge of reality can be obtained
by reproducing that reality in some substitute
medium. Clipson  Iconic, analogues,
operational, and mathematical. Porter 
Computer.
• Example: Airflow in an interior space.
• Will computer modeling replace physical
models? Pros and Cons? Engagement with
buildings or even 3D models result in more
“embodied” sense of ultimate form.

41. 4.3. Seven types of research
4.3.6. Logical argumentation
• Philosophy: System – definition, parts,
relationship, delimits, connection to other
systems in logical manner. Necessity,
contingency, induction vs. deduction, a priori
and posteriori formulations.
• Tactics: Attempts to place a well documented
thing within a systematic framework that
explains the thing.
• Example: March & Stiny  Shape Grammar –
systematic way of understanding formal
composition

42. 4.3. Seven types of research
4.3.7. Case study research
• Philosophy: Conceptual container.
• Contain one or more other research
approaches or can be used as one of
several devices under the umbrella of a
single research.
• Tactics: Several case studies can be
compared to reach a general set of
observations.
• Example: Moos & Lemke  Group
housing for the aged.

43. Philosophy Theory Strategy Tactics
END